VEirevr^F—  \-  ~       = ~    = 


LIPORNlA 


PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 
OF   LITERARY  HISTORY 

WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO 
MODERN  FRENCH  LITERATURE 

A  GUIDE  FOR  GRADUATE  STUDENTS 


ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR   OF    FRENCH    LITERATURE    IN 
HARVARD    UNIVERSITY 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON     •     NEW  YORK     •     CHICAGO     •     LONDON 
ATLANTA     •     DALLAS     •     COLUMBUS     •     SAN    FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  1922,  BY   ANDR£   MORIZE 
ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 

PRINTED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 
641.12 


gfte   gtbtnatnm 

GINN  AND  COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


INTRODUCTION 

A  memory  and  a  wish  are  responsible  for  this  book. 

The  memory  is  of  years,  already  distant,  when  the  author 
was  privileged  to  study  at  the  Universite  de  Paris  and  the 
Ecole  normale  superieure  under  excellent  masters.  From 
these  years  he  has  brought  away  a  feeling  of  special  gratitude 
for  the  devotion  with  which  these  masters  strove  not  only  to 
communicate  to  their  pupils  a  part  of  their  own  learning  but 
also  to  initiate  them  into  the  actual  methods  of  scientific 
work.  He  cannot  forget  the  conferences  on  Saturday  after- 
noons when,  grouped  about  Professor  G.  Lanson,  a  few  young 
men  were  made  acquainted  with  the  tools  and  the  practical 
side  of  a  study  still  new  to  them ;  or  those  hours  when  Lanson 
generously  placed  at  their  disposal  the  material  destined  to 
form  the  Manuel  bibliographique ;  or,  above  all,  the  moments 
of  personal  contact  when,  with  his  wealth  of  erudition,  his 
keen  penetration,  his  strict  but  kindly  criticism,  he  guided 
his  students,  started  them  on  the  right  road  and  kept  them  in 
it,  pointed  out  the  stumblingblocks,  and  explained  the  best 
way  to  avoid  them  and  to  proceed  with  safety  and  success. 
Those  were  unforgetable  lessons,  and  their  memory,  to  which 
the  author  hopes  not  to  prove  faithless,  will  be  found  in  every 
chapter  of  this  book.  The  name  of  G.  Lanson  will  appear 
several  times,  but  the  echo  of  his  thought  and  of  his  very 
words  will  be  heard  on  every  page. 

Other  teachers  gave  no  less  invaluable  help  to  their  pupils, 
guiding  them  personally  through  the  library  stacks,  showing 
them  the  principal  bibliographical  implements  and  illustrat- 


iv  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

ing  their  use,  thus  supplying  to  the  students  in  a  few  hours 
information  that,  left  to  their  own  devices,  they  could  not 
have  picked  up  in  as  many  years.  At  other  times  a  student 
would  be  asked  to  report  to  the  professor  and  his  comrades 
the  results  of  his  own  researches,  and  together  they  would 
discuss  the  method,  its  merits  and  demerits.  Every  such  oc- 
casion offered  a  fresh  incentive  to  all  the  members  of  the  class : 
they  learned  something  more  important  than  pedantic  details 
or  ingenious  critical  opinions — they  learned  how  to  work. 

It  is  this  memory,  combined  with  the  experience  of  several 
years  of  teaching  in  the  United  States,  that  roused  in  the 
author  the  wish  to  do  the  same  good  turn,  as  far  as  in  him 
lay,  to  American  students. 

Indeed,  there  is  always  a  troublesome  transition  between 
the  end  of  undergraduate  work  and  the  beginning  of  graduate 
work.  This  difficulty  is  particularly  noticeable  when  stu- 
dents reach  the  point  of  choosing  the  subject  for  a  thesis  and 
of  attempting  their  own  researches.  Their  zeal  is,  to  be  sure, 
unbounded,  their  diligence  and  conscientiousness  are  irre- 
proachable; but  it  is  impossible  to  deny  that  obstacles 
abound.  In  a  word,  and  quite  frankly,  our  young  men  do 
not  know  definitely  enough  how  to  work.  They  try  to  patch 
out  this  ignorance,  for  which  they  are  not  to  blame,  by  an 
empiricism  that  may  sometimes  succeed,  but  that  guarantees 
them  insufficiently  against  deception  and  error.  Too  often 
they  are  seen  wandering  through  the  libraries  "hunting  for 
information",  like  a  blind  man  hunting  for  a  house  in  a 
strange  city.  They  are  satisfied  with  what  they  obtain  in  this 
way,  without  knowing  that  more — the  really  important — in- 
formation exists  elsewhere.  They  come  up  for  even  ad- 
vanced examinations  with  a  bibliographical  ignorance  that 
is  at  times  disconcerting.  Once  the  material  is  accumulated 
they  (Jo  not  always  know  how  to  arrange  it  with  dexterity 


INTRODUCTION  V 

and  skill:  they  feel  like  masons  set  to  do  an  architect's  task. 
Therefore,  after  months  of  research  and  exertion,  they  run 
the  risk  of  producing  a  work,  no  matter  how  conscientious, 
that  just  misses  being  the  definitive,  or  at  any  rate  important, 
contribution  intended.  Loss  of  time,  uncertainty,  waste  of 
energy  and  effort,  at  the  expense  of  the  final  results, — such 
is,  if  not  the  usual,  it  must  be  confessed  the  sadly  frequent, 
sight.  This  book  will  have  realized  its  purpose  if  it  is  able 
to  some  extent  to  remedy  this  evil  and  to  fill  this  gap. 

The  subject  matter  has  been  given,  under  the  same  title, 
as  a  course  at  Harvard  University.  This  course,  limited  to 
a  small  number  of  pupils,  has  always  been  very  informal, 
with  conversation  and  free  discussions  constantly  interrupt- 
ing an  exposition  that  sought  to  be  clear  and  vivid  rather 
than  literary  and  eloquent.  In  arranging  the  lectures  in  book 
form  the  author  has  tried  to  keep  the  intimate,  direct  tone, 
the  naturalness  and  ease,  of  unconstrained  and  unpretentious 
talks. 

The  aim  is,  first,  to  give  to  the  novice  in  literary  history  a 
clear  idea  of  the  field  he  is  entering — to  define  its  character- 
istics and  limits,  its  relations  with  the  two  neighboring  prov- 
inces of  literary  criticism  and  history;  next,  to  familiarize 
him  with  the  indispensable  implements  and  tools ;  lastly,  to 
introduce  him  to  the  principal  problems  that  may  arise  and 
to  help  him  to  find  the  solutions. 

These  problems,  after  all,  are  not  endlessly  varied:  they 
fall  under  a  certain  number  of  headings,  corresponding  to 
different  stages  in  the  creation  of  a  literary  work  and  to 
its  varying  fortunes  with  the  public ;  for  instance,  questions 
of  linguistic  or  grammatical  commentary  and  interpretation, 
questions  of  sources  or  of  influence,  questions  of  chronology 
or  of  authenticity,  of  biography  or  of  bibliography,  of  Ian- 


vi  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

guage,  style,  or  versification.  The  student  is  never  the  first 
person  who  has  had  to  deal  with  them:  others  before  him 
have  made  the  attempt ;  others  have  solved  them.  Their  re- 
searches, considered  particularly  from  the  point  of  view  of 
method,  form  a  treasure  of  accumulated  experience  on  which 
the  present  volume  invites  the  newcomer  to  draw  as  often  as 
he  can.  Not,  be  it  clearly  understood,  that  he  should  become 
the  servile  imitator  of  such  and  such  a  professor  or  scholar 
or  indulge  in  cunning  plagiarism  of  successful  methods.  No, 
the  question  is  simply  to  follow  the  daily  practice  of  tech- 
nical or  mechanical  workshops:  the  apprentice  stands  be- 
side the  good  workman  whose  hand  and  eye  have  acquired 
skill  and  accuracy  through  years  of  training.  He  watches 
him  and  asks  questions ;  he  strives  to  stamp  on  his  memory 
each  phase  of  the  process  that  transforms  crude  matter  into 
a  finely  finished  work ;  he  observes  the  deft  fingers,  the  care, 
the  delicate,  precise  movements,  that  distinguish  the  experi- 
enced craftsman  from  the  unpracticed  hand.  He  tries  to 
remember  all  this  when  he  himself  is  seated  at  the  bench 
and  working  on  his  own  account.  This,  and  nothing  else, 
is  expected  from  the  student — to  watch,  observe,  under- 
stand, and  learn. 

"To  be  useful  to  students  has  been  my  constant  thought", 
writes  Lanson  in  his  introduction  to  the  Manuel  bibliogra- 
phique.  The  author  wishes  to  repeat  the  formula  here,  re- 
stricting it  still  more:  To  be  useful  to  graduate  students, 
working  on  French  literature  in  American  and  English  uni- 
versities, has  been  his  constant  thought. 

He  has  had  especially  in  mind  two  types  of  young  workers : 
first,  those  that  are  just  beginning  their  personal  researches ; 
next,  those  that,  after  taking  their  A.M.  or  Ph.D.  degree, 
are  continuing  their  careers  in  schools  or  colleges  far  re- 


INTRODUCTION  vii 

moved  from  the  centres  of  scientific  activity  and  historical 
investigation.  He  hopes  to  give  them  encouragement  not  to 
abandon  personal  work,  and  assistance  in  its  accomplishment. 

As  occasion  offered  he  has  not  hesitated  to  enlarge  upon 
facts  that  are  almost  self-evident,  upon  elementary  methods 
and  precautions,  even  upon  entirely  practical  advice;  nor, 
in  other  places,  has  he  avoided  discussing  more  complicated 
problems,  accessible  only  to  students  already  far  advanced. 
He  has  simply  borne  in  mind  the  extremely  diverse  and 
unequal  degrees  of  preparation  found  in  the  members  of  grad- 
uate courses ;  and  experience  has  shown  him,  moreover,  that 
sometimes  it  does  no  harm,  even  to  the  best  students,  to  re- 
call, if  not  to  reveal,  certain  of  these  elementary,  obvious,  but 
very  important  points.  Why  should  they  not  be  as  wise  as 
M.  Jourdain,  who,  when  his  master  of  philosophy  asked 
him,  "You  know  Latin,  of  course?"  answered,  "Yes,  but  go 
ahead  just  as  if  I  didn't"?  Perhaps  the  author  will  be  re- 
proached for  going  ahead  too  much  as  if  his  readers  didn't ! 

Furthermore,  certain  demonstrations  or  discussions  have 
been  either  developed  fully  or  analyzed  minutely,  not  at  all 
because  they  were  particularly  original  or  interesting  in 
themselves,  but  because  as  a  rule  they  were  newer  to  the 
students.  The  length  of  the  various  chapters  corresponds 
less  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  subject  matter  than  to 
reasons  or  necessities  that  might  be  termed  pedagogical. 

Students  must  not  suppose  that  they  are  herewith  offered 
some  variety  of  "Practical  Receipt-Book,"  with  the  methods 
of  literary  history  tabulated  in  rules  and  formulas,  ready  to 
be  applied  to  fresh  cases.  Such  an  attempt  could  not  be 
realized,  and  in  any  event  would  be  absurd.  They  need  not 
expect  to  be  shown  in  these  pages  any  short  cuts  for  avoiding 
difficulties  and  obstacles.  What  they  will  find  is  a  sort  of 
atlas  of  literary  history,  a  collection  of  maps  of  the  country 


viii  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

they  plan  to  explore ;  on  these  are  marked  its  intricacies  and 
resources,  and  the  safe  highways  from  which  the  pioneers 
must  start  their  explorations. 

Lastly,  this  work  will  fulfill  its  author's  earnest  desire  if 
it  helps  to  develop  in  our  young  students,  together  with  a 
taste  for  literary  research,  the  attitude  of  mind  that  insures 
success,  and  that  is  nothing,  after  all,  but  scientific  curiosity 
combined  with  scientific  conscientiousness.  A  love  of  pre- 
cision joined  to  aspirations  toward  general  ideas ;  respect  for 
historical  facts,  and  warm  appreciation  of  beautiful  writings ; 
minuteness  in  research,  and  breadth  of  view;  finesse  in  an- 
alysis ;  strictness  in  criticism ;  penetration  in  aesthetic  judg- 
ments ;  lastly,  exacting  loyalty  toward  oneself,  toward  facts, 
toward  the  ideas  and  the  men  studied, — these  are  a  few  of 
the  valuable  qualities  that,  thoroughly  understood  and  thor- 
oughly carried  out,  literary  studies  tend  to  develop.  For  the 
training  of  students  there  is  no  better  school.  May  this  book 
prove  an  acceptable  introduction. 

It  is  my  pleasant  task  to  extend  hearty  thanks  to  those 
who  have  been  interested  in  the  preparation  of  these  pages : 
first,  to  Professor  J.  D.  M.  Ford,  Chairman  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Romance  Languages  at  Harvard  University,  who 
welcomed  and  encouraged  the  idea  of  the  course  on  which  the 
book  is  based ;  to  several  of  my  colleagues  and  friends  who 
have  helped  me  with  their  invaluable  advice,  experience,  and 
suggestions — in  particular,  to  Professors  Carleton  Brown, 
Ronald  S.  Crane,  and  Percy  W.  Long ;  and,  finally,  to  Miss 
Phyllis  Robbins,  who,  with  devotion  and  patience,  has  ac- 
complished the  work  of  transforming  into  a  book  for  Ameri- 
can readers  these  lectures  of  a  French  professor. 

ANDRE  MORIZE 
CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION iii 

CHAPTER  I.    OBJECTS  AND  METHODS  OF  LITERARY  HISTORY      i 

CHAPTER  II.  IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS :  BIBLIOGRAPHY  .  13 
Some  works  of  general  bibliography,  13.  Bibliography  of  modern 
French  literature,  16.  Academic  dissertations,  25.  Large  catalogues  of 
libraries,  26.  Bibliography  of  subjects  involving  the  literary  relations 
of  France  with  other  countries,  28.  History  of  the  French  language, 
29.  Periodical  literature,  30.  Encyclopaedias  and  large  dictionaries,  33. 
Some  practical  advice,  34. 

CHAPTER  III.  THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  ....  37 
Requirements  of  a  good  edition,  38.  Different  stages  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  an  edition,  38.  Critical  work  for  establishing  and  cleaning  up 
the  text,  39.  Choice  of  a  text  as  foundation  of  a  critical  edition,  47. 
Establishment  and  arrangement  of  the  critical  apparatus,  56.  Repro- 
duction of  the  text :  questions  of  orthography  and  punctuation,  58. 
Linguistic  and  grammatical  commentary,  62.  Literary  commentary, 
63.  Practical  details  of  printing,  65.  Examples  of  editions  to  study,  66. 

CHAPTER  IV.    ESTABLISHING  A  CRITICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY   .     70 
Definition  and  object,  70.    Critical  bibliography  of  an  author,  71.    Ex- 
amples to  study,  76.    Critical  bibliography  of  a  question  of  literary 
history,  80. 

CHAPTER    V.     INVESTIGATION    AND    INTERPRETATION    OF 

SOURCES 82 

Definition  of  a  source,  82.  Importance  of  the  study  of  sources,  84. 
Temptations  and  possible  errors,  87.  Various  types  of  sources,  96. 
Direct  sources,  96.  Documentary  sources,  101.  Sources  of  detail,  104. 
Composite  sources,  107.  Oral  and  indefinite  sources,  113.  Sources  of 
inspiration,  118.  Graphic  and  plastic  sources,  124.  Principal  fields  for 
the  investigation  of  sources,  127. 

CHAPTER  VI.    CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY  .     .     .132 
Importance  of  chronology,  132.    Problems  of  chronology  in  literary 
history,  135.   To  fix  the  date  of  a  work,  136.   To  fix  the  dates  of  the 
various  parts  of  a  work,  143. 


x  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  VII.    PROBLEMS  OF  AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRI- 
BUTION     157 

The  authenticity  of  the  Paradoxe  sur  le  comedien,  158.  Problems  of 
attribution  solved  through  bibliographical  evidence,  170.  Opuscules 
and  Factums  of  Pascal,  172.  Problem  of  the  attribution  of  the  Dis- 
cours  de  la  servitude  volontaire,  176.  Methods  in  questions  of  authen- 
ticity and  attribution,  189. 

CHAPTER  VIII.    QUESTIONS  OF  VERSIFICATION 194 

Bibliography  of  French  versification,  196.  Plan  and  methods  of  the 
study  of  versification,  198.  Lines  considered  separately,  200.  Syllabic 
structure,  200.  Rhythmical  structure,  200.  Harmonic  structure,  204. 
Groups  of  lines,  206.  Esthetic  commentary,  209. 

CHAPTER  IX.    TREATMENT  OF  BIOGRAPHICAL  MATERIAL 
IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 210 

Importance  of  biographical  precision  in  literary  history,  210.  Col- 
lection of  the  documents,  215.  Treatment  of  documents;  essential 
points  of  literary  biography,  217. 

CHAPTER  X.  QUESTIONS  OF  SUCCESS  AND  OF  INFLUENCE  225 
Distinction  between  success  and  influence,  226.  Definition  of  in- 
fluence, 228.  How  may  an  influence  present  itself?  230.  Active  in- 
fluences, 233.  Retarded  or  arrested  influences,  237.  Mechanism  and 
mode  of  action  of  literary  influences,  243.  Simplification,  elimination, 
choice,  244.  The  image  that  each  epoch  or  each  milieu  forms  of  a 
work,  247.  Tracing  and  measuring  literary  influences,  250.  Possible 
errors  and  necessary  precautions,  259. 

CHAPTER  XI.  THE  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  IN  CONNEC- 
TION WITH  THE  HISTORY  OF  IDEAS  AND  OF  MANNERS  263 
Questions  in  which  literature  and  history  cannot  be  considered  iso- 
lated from  each  other,  264.  Difficulties  and  precautions,  268.  Rela- 
tions between  the  literary  work  and  its  environment,  272.  Influence 
of  the  work  on  the  milieu,  278.  Methods  of  handling  the  facts,  282. 
Importance  of  individual  elements,  285.  Remarks  on  method,  287. 

CHAPTER  XII.    PREPARATION  AND  REDACTION  OF  A  THESIS     289 
Choice  of  a  subject,  289.   Approach  and  preparation,  291.   Work  of 
organization :    determination  of  problems,  294.    Form  and  expres- 
sion, 297. 

CONCLUSION 300 

INDEX  30S 


PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS  OF 
LITERARY  HISTORY 

CHAPTER  I 
OBJECTS  AND  METHODS  OF  LITERARY  HISTORY 

To  justify  the  existence  and  the  methods  of  literary  his- 
tory is  entirely  superfluous  nowadays,  and  it  is  no  less  super- 
fluous to  dwell  upon  the  differences  and  likenesses  between 
it  and  literary  criticism.  Our  common  sense  tells  us,  if  we 
do  away  with  prejudices  and  futile  scholarly  discussions,  that 
literary  history,  working  in  its  own  field,  is  trying  neither  to 
replace  nor  to  oppose  literary  criticism.  Literary  history 
thinks  that  it  can  help  literary  criticism ;  can  clear  a  path  for 
it ;  can  lighten  its  task  of  understanding,  judging,  and  classi- 
fying literary  works  and  the  great  movements  of  human 
thought.  It  offers  its  services  as  a  devoted  auxiliary,  modest 
and  self-effacing.  It  has  no  imperialistic  designs:  it  covers 
enough  territory  already  to  have  no  need  to  encroach  on  that 
of  a  neighbor.  It  prepares  the  material  for  the  critic  but  puts 
no  restrictions  on  the  way  he  should  use  it.  If  he  has  faith  in 
impressionistic  criticism,  if  he  believes  that  the  literary  critic 
should  surrender  himself  to  the  emotion  produced  by  the 
book  he  is  studying  and  then  should  express  this  emotion 
with  precision  and  delicacy,  he  is  free  to  do  so.  Literary 
history  asks  him  only  to  base  his  personal  reaction  on  facts 
that  have  been  historically  verified,  to  define  his  position 
clearly,  and,  when  communicating  a  purely  personal  reaction 


2  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

to  the  public,  not  to  believe  or  to  make  others  believe  that 
he  is  giving  any  added  information  about  the  work  or  its 
writer.  "Impressionism",  says  Lanson,  "is  the  only  method 
that  puts  us  in  touch  with  beauty.  Let  us,  then,  use  it  for 
this  purpose,  frankly,  but  let  us  limit  it  to  this,  rigorously. 
To  distinguish  knowing  from  feeling,  what  we  may  know 
from  what  we  should  feel;  to  avoid  feeling  when  we  can 
know,  and  thinking  that  we  know  when  we  feel :  to  this,  it 
seems  to  me,  the  scientific  method  of  literary  history  can 
be  reduced."1 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  critic  believes  that  he  should  ex- 
plain and  judge  a  work  in  the  name  of  some  preexistent 
system,  whether  aesthetic,  philosophic,  or  scientific;  if  he 
holds,  with  Boileau  and  the  other  dogmatic  or  authoritarian 
critics,  that  the  criterion  of  excellence  is  conformity  to  some 
ideal  or  tradition ;  if  he  prefers,  like  Taine  or  Brunetiere,  to 
appropriate  from  science  methods  of  classifying,  explaining, 
or  analyzing,  to  transfer  to  the  field  of  literary  criticism 
either  the  determinism  of  the  physical  sciences  or  the  theory 
of  biological  evolution, — here  again  literary  history  denies 
neither  the  legitimacy  of  such  points  of  view  nor  the  interest 
of  the  results  obtained.  Let  me  repeat  that  it  leaves  each 
one  free  to  use  as  he  sees  fit  the  facts  that  it  puts  at  his  dis- 
posal, but  that  it  insists  upon  the  necessity  of  his  asking  for 
the  material,  which  it  is  ready  to  supply  with  every  obtain- 
able guarantee  of  historical  accuracy.  Now,  laying  aside  all 
pedantic  phraseology,  the  facts  are  these:  those  who  have 
faith  in  literary  history  ask  merely  that  the  critic,  before 
constructing  systems,  before  praising  or  blaming,  worshiping 
or  scoffing,  be  sure  that  he  knows  exactly  what  he  is  talking 
about.  They  ask  that  before  criticizing  he  be  sure  to  criticize 
established  facts,  indisputable  chronology,  correct  texts,  ex- 

lRevue  de  VUniversiti  de  Bruxelles,  December,  1909. 


OBJECTS  AND  METHODS  3 

act  biographies ;  in  short,  as  a  watchword  they  would  gladly 
adopt  the  old  Latin  proverb,  modified  for  their  use :  "  Primum 
scire,  deinde  philosophari."1 

This  craving  for  knowledge  is,  truly  speaking,  the  only 
scientific  part  of  their  efforts.  There  is  no  scientific  method 
in  literary  history  in  the  sense  that  there  is  no  method,  how- 
ever well  adapted  to  a  given  science,  that  literary  history  can 
transplant  and  apply  to  its  own  researches.  The  illusion 
that  this  is  possible  is  responsible  for  much  poor  and  childish 
work :  statistics  and  charts,  evolution  of  species,  and  quanti- 
tative analysis  are  processes,  methods,  and  hypotheses  ex- 
cellent in  their  place,  but  their  place  is  not  in  literary  history. 
For  its  purposes  the  scientific  method  is  reduced  to  scientific 
conscientiousness  and  spirit — to  the  determination  to  leave 
nothing  to  guesswork,  and,  without  stifling  subjective  impres- 
sions, to  keep  them  entirely  apart  from  substantiated  facts. 

Practically,  what  does  this  programme  consist  in  ?  Its  aim 
is  to  surround  literary  works  with  all  the  information  needed 
to  make  them  thoroughly  understood.  In  detail  the  process 
is  as  follows : 

1.  To  seize  as  completely  and  accurately  as  possible  the 
meaning  of  the  work — words  and  ideas,  historical,  philo- 
sophical, and  artistic  value. 

2.  To  distinguish  in  each  work  between  the  part  that 
originates  with  the  writer  and  that  in  which  imitations,  remi- 
niscences, traditions,  can  be  detected. 

1  See  Lanson,  De  la  methode  dans  les  sciences,  Vol.  II,  p.  223  :  "  We  wish  that, 
before  judging  Bossuet  or  Voltaire  in  the  name  of  a  doctrine  or  of  a  religion, 
there  would  be  an  effort  to  make  his  acquaintance,  with  no  thought  except 
to  collect  the  greatest  possible  mass  of  authentic  information,  and  to  estab- 
lish the  greatest  possible  number  of  verified  references.  Our  ideal  is  to  con- 
struct a  Bossuet  and  a  Voltaire  that  neither  Catholics  nor  Anticlericals  can 
refute,  with  personalities  that  both  will  acknowledge  to  be  true,  and  that 
both  will  then  decorate  with  any  sentimental  characteristics  they  please." 


4  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

3.  To  discover  and  analyze  continually  the  interaction 
between  literature  and  the  multiple  elements — intellectual 
or  economic,  political  or  moral,  artistic  or  social — that  form 
its  environment. 

In  a  word,  the  work  of  literary  history  is  what  has  been 
aptly  defined  as  "an  attempt  to  comprehend  historically  and 
critically".1 

This  attempt  to  comprehend  presupposes  a  large  number 
of  questions  to  study  and  problems  to  solve.  The  researches 
of  literary  history,  like  the  laboratory  experiments  of  psy- 
chology or  of  biology,  have  their  own  technique — practical 
methods  of  study  and  solution  that  prevent  our  going  astray 
and  wasting  time  and  energy.  No  one  should  try  to  guess 
or  to  improvise  these  methods:  it  is  far  wiser  to  learn  from 
those  who  have  built  them  up  and  applied  them  with  success. 

These  questions  or  problems  may  be  classed  under  the 
following  headings : 

i.  Questions  of  bibliography.  What  are  the  implements 
and  tools  of  the  good  worker?  How  can  the  student  find 
his  way  among  the  thousands  of  books,  printed  documents, 
and  manuscripts  that  are  available  ?  Where  will  he  turn  for 
the  heterogeneous  information  he  requires?  What  will  pre- 
vent his  delving  for  months  into  a  subject,  only  to  learn  too 
late  that  it  has  been  excellently  handled  in  some  article  that 
he  did  not  know  how  to  find?  How  can  he  avoid  hunt- 
ing for  two  or  three  hours  for  a  fact  that  he  could  have 
verified  in  five  minutes  had  he  known  where  to  go?  Only 
those  who  have  been  thrown  on  their  own  resources  before 
the  thousands  of  cards  in  a  catalogue,  or  in  the  labyrinth 

1G.  Cohen,  "Une  Chaire  nouvelle  de  langue  et  de  litterature  franchises  a 
1'Universite  d'Amsterdam,"  Revue  Internationale  de  I'enseignement,  October 
15,  1912.  The  article  deserves  to  be  read  in  full. 


OBJECTS  AND  METHODS  5 

of  a  large  library,  will  fully  understand  the  need  of  some 
practical  apprenticeship. 

Besides,  it  is  not  entirely  a  question  of  being  able  to  ex- 
tricate oneself:  other  people  have  to  be  extricated  also. 
To  compile  clear,  complete,  handy  bibliographies  of  the  im- 
portant writers  and  subjects  is  one  of  the  most  urgent  tasks 
for  literary  history.  How,  then,  should  this  work  be  organ- 
ized and  carried  out? 

2.  Questions  of  criticism  of  the  text.    In  taking  up  the 
study  of  some  book  the  first  step  is  to  examine  the  text. 
Is  it  correct  and  trustworthy?    Or  has  it  been  transmitted 
to  us  with  faults,  omissions,  interpolations,  inadvertences  of 
all  sorts?    In  the  latter  case  it  must  undergo  a  ' cleaning  up', 
like  that  to  which  the  ancient  Greek  or  Latin  authors  are 
subjected.    This  is  the  preliminary  work  in  preparing  an 
accurate  edition.   How  is  it  to  be  accomplished  ? 

3.  Questions  of  interpretation  and  of  explanation.   A  text 
may  be  authentic  and  correct  and  yet  be  quite  obscure,  or 
decipherable  only  with  difficulty.    Read  attentively  and  con- 
scientiously any  page  of  some  famous  writer ;  no  matter  how 
intelligent  and  cultivated  you  may  be,  there  will  be  many 
things  that  at  first  sight  leave  a  vague  or  incorrect  impres- 
sion, or  none  at  all.    "To  understand  that  you  do  not  under- 
stand" is  the  beginning  of  wisdom.  Open  Rabelais,  Moliere, 
Voltaire,  Dante  or  Goethe,  Milton  or  Cervantes;   if  you 
really  know  how  to  '  read ',  you  will  find  many  problems  and 
stumblingblocks  on  every  page.     Words  may  be  obscure, 
either  because  they  belong  to  a  special  or  technical  vocabu- 
lary or  because  their  meanings  have  changed  since  the  book 
was  written.  Perhaps  grammar  and  syntax  puzzle  you ;  they 
may  differ  from  current  use  or  from  the  general  use  at  that 
time.    Then  there  are  many  allusions — references  to  con- 
temporary life,  to  the  life  of  the  author,  to  his  reading, 


6  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

to  some  fact  of  historical  or  local  significance.  All  these 
allusions  must  be  traced,  analyzed,  explained.  In  short,  a 
commentary  must  be  written,  a  grammatical,  linguistic,  ex- 
planatory, literary  commentary  of  the  text — a  piece  of 
work  that,  both  in  preparing  and  executing,  needs  great 
learning,  perspicacity,  and  tact.  This,  after  the  establish- 
ment of  a  correct  and  critical  text,  is  the  second  phase  of 
editing. 

4.  Questions  of  versification.  Whether  in  writing  the  com- 
mentary for  a  new  edition,  whether  in  literary  criticism, 
whether  as  the  object  of  a  special,  separate  study,  versifica- 
tion raises  many  difficulties.  These  difficulties,  grave  as  they 
are  for  a  Frenchman,  are  particularly  formidable  for  a  for- 
eigner. To  analyze  and  appreciate  the  rhythm,  the  harmony, 
and  the  artistic  worth  of  a  poem  presupposes  a  mass  of 
precise  technical  information  and  a  long  training  of  the  ear. 
What,  then,  are  the  points  to  study?    How  is  the  commen- 
tary to  be  arranged  ?    Where  are  the  indispensable  technical 
facts  to  be  found?     What  definitions  should  be  adopted? 
Finally,  how  shall  the  delicate  skill  be  acquired  that  enables 
us  to  speak  of  French  verse  not  as  dry  statisticians  but  as 
responsive,  discriminating  judges  ? 

5.  Preparation  of  a  critical  edition.    Another  urgent  task 
for  literary  history  is  to  furnish  scholars  as  well  as  the  gen- 
eral public  with  good  editions  of  modern  writers.    This  work 
also  is  exacting  and  complicated:  the  choice  of  the  edition 
whose  text  shall  be  reprinted ;  the  use  to  be  made  of  manu- 
scripts ;  the  reproduction  of  the  spelling  and  punctuation  of 
the  original  editions;  the  establishment  and  arrangement  of 
the  critical  apparatus  and  the  various  commentaries;   the 
material  details  of  the  book — these  are  only  a  few  of  the 
problems  that  an  editor  must  face.    How  can  he  succeed  in 
such  an  enterprise? 


OBJECTS  AND  METHODS  7 

6.  Questions  of  date  and  of  chronology.    In  literary  criti- 
cism of  whatever  school  there  is  no  more  frequent  source  of 
error  than  ignorance  or  uncertainty  of  chronology.  The  date 
printed  on  the  title-page  of  a  book  is  often  not  the  exact  date 
of  publication;  still  oftener  the  date  of  publication  is  not 
the  date  of  composition.    Moreover,  in  many  cases,  in  order 
to  decide  a  question  of  influence  or  of  imitation,  not  only 
the  year  of  publication  must  be  determined  but  the  month, 
the  week,  the  day.    A  precise  knowledge  of  these  chrono- 
logical data  is  needed  in  order  to  give  the  work  its  true 
place  in  the  author's  life  and  in  the  literary  development 
of  his  time. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  masterpieces,  such  as  Mon- 
taigne's Essais,  Voltaire's  Dictionnaire  philosophique,  the 
Confessions  of  Rousseau,  Les  Contemplations  of  Hugo,  have 
grown  progressively,  have  been  completed  and  enriched  at 
intervals.  To  criticize  them  without  first  of  all  making  sure 
of  the  date  of  composition  of  each  of  the  parts  would  be  to 
invite  serious  mistakes.  With  these  fragmentary  or  auto- 
biographical works  fresh  problems  arise,  calling  for  special 
methods. 

7.  Questions  of  authenticity  and  of  attribution.    If  it  is 
indispensable  to  establish  a  correct  text,  it  is  equally  indis- 
pensable, in  certain  instances,  to  assure  ourselves  that  the  work 
is  genuine,  that  it  really  belongs  to  the  author  to  whom  it  is 
universally  attributed.     Doubtless,  for  most  of  the  great 
modern  works  the  question  need  never  be  raised.    There  are, 
however,  many  exceptions  in  the  case  of  posthumous  works, 
of  correspondence,  of  libels  published  more  or  less  clandes- 
tinely, or  of  collections  into  which  pieces  of  suspected  origin 
have  insinuated  themselves — in  which  the  tares  have  been 
mixed  with  the  wheat.    By  what  methods  should  questions 
of  this  type  be  studied  and  answered  ? 


8  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

8.  Questions  of  sources  and  of  origins.   "Almost  every- 
thing is  imitation",  writes  Voltaire.    "With  books  it  is  the 
same  as  with  the  fire  on  our  hearths;  we  go  to  beg  a  light 
from  our  neighbors,  we  build  a  fire  in  our  houses,  and  it  be- 
longs to  all  alike."    Even  if  not  "everything"  is  imitation, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  every  book  stands  partly  for  the  crea- 
tive thought  of  the  writer,  partly  for  his  reading  and  docu- 
mentary work.    Sometimes  he  unconsciously  fills  it  with 
vague  reminiscences,  half-forgotten  reading,  obscure  sugges- 
tions ;  sometimes  he  intentionally  borrows  and  imitates,  even 
openly  steals  and  plagiarizes,  adding  to  his  own  structure 
stones  that  he  may 'perhaps  have  freshly  chipped  but  that 
he  has  not  cut  from  the  block.    A  search  for  all  these  ele- 
ments is  essential  in  determining  the  originality  of  a  writer, 
his  working  methods,  his  literary  inheritance  and  parentage. 
How  should  we  carry  out  this  investigation  of  sources  and 
interpret  the  results? 

9.  Questions  of  the  formation  and  the  transformation  of  a 
work.  As  a  general  rule  a  book  does  not  at  the  outset  assume 
a  definite  and  unchangeable  form :  it  is  the  visible  end  of  a 
long  series  of  preparations  and  efforts  and  the  beginning  of 
another  series  of  transformations.     Between  the  moment 
when  the  first  inspiration,  the  first  projects,  shape  themselves 
in  the  author's  mind  and  the  day  when,  in  his  old  age,  he 
publishes  the  last  edition  of  his  book,  there  is  a  succession  of 
intermediary  stages,  which  reflect  faithfully  the  changes  in 
his  taste,  thought,  and  feelings.  We  must,  then,  find  and 
study  the  outlines,  rough  drafts,  fragments,  and  copies;  we 
must  follow  the  text  through  its  various  impressions,  from 
the  princeps  to  the  definitive  edition,  collating,  comparing, 
classifying  the  readings,  corrections,  additions,  and  suppres- 
sions, in  order  to  trace  the  evolution  of  the  author's  ideas 


OBJECTS  AND  METHODS  9 

and  art.  The  results  of  this  work  will  find  a  place  in  some 
critical  edition,  or  in  a  general  study  of  the  formation  of  a 
writer  or  the  genesis  of  a  work ;  they  will  be  worth  exactly 
what  the  method  used  to  obtain  them  is  worth. 

10.  Questions  of  biography.   Nearly  every  question  that 
has  been  mentioned  exemplifies  the  close  connection  between 
a  writer's  life  and  his  work.    This  connection  will,  of  course, 
be  studied  with  greater  exactness  and  profit  the  more  com- 
pletely the  life  of  the  author  is  known.    How,  then,  is  it 
possible  to  write  what  Sainte-Beuve  calls  "a  well-composed 
biography  "  ?    Where  are  the  documents  to  be  found  ?    How 
should  they  be  turned  to  account?     What  special  points 
should  be  brought  out?    In  the  life  of  every  famous  writer 
are  there  not  certain  questions  and  certain  incidents  that 
bear  more  directly  than  others  on  his  work:  geographic  or 
ethnic  origins;   education  and  formation;   first  literary  in- 
fluences ;  periods  of  crisis  and  their  causes ;  stages  of  evolu- 
tion;  relations  with  various  contemporary  social  groups? 
Lastly,  are  there  any  models  of  literary  biography,  both  his- 
torically unassailable  and  arranged  with  intelligence,  clear- 
ness, and  skill? 

11.  Questions  of  success  and  of  influence.    The  life  of  a 
literary  work  really  begins  only  on  the  day  when,  like 
Vigny's  "bouteille  a  la  mer",  it  is  thrown  into  the  great  tide 
of  human  thought.   Literary  history  should  follow  its  des- 
tinies, its  success,  its  influence.    A  work,  though  received  in 
triumph,  may  disappear,  leaving  no  trace;  another,  hardly 
noticed  on  its  publication,  may,  as  the  years  and  centuries 
go  by,  exert  an  ever-widening  power.   What  are  the  reasons 
for  these  vicissitudes?    If  it  is*  true  that,  as  the  Latin  poet 
says,  "habent  sua  fata  libelli",  how  should  the  fata  and  their 
caprices  be  studied  ?    The  history  of  the  influence  of  literary 


io  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

works  is  a  splendid  field  for  study,  still  nearly  unexplored, 
in  which  several  pioneers  have  already  built  monuments  as 
landmarks  and  guides. 

12.  Relations  of  the  history  of  literature  with  the  history 
of  ideas  and  of  civilization.  Finally,  literary  history  looks 
farther  than  to  the  establishing  of  explanatory  commentary, 
the  naming  of  sources,  and  the  tracing  of  influences.  Often 
its  horizon  is  enlarged  to  include  the  connection  between  the 
literary  work  and  the  general  history  of  ideas  and  of  civiliza- 
tion. In  what  degree  is  literature  the  '  expression  of  so- 
ciety'? In  what  degree  is  society  shaped  and  modified  by 
literature  ?  What  part  does  a  book  play  in  preparing  great 
political  crises  or  slow  social  evolution  ?  Here  are  innumer- 
able problems  of  vital  interest,  toward  which  in  the  last 
twenty-five  years  the  work  of  many  scholars  has  been  di- 
rected— young  scholars  interested  not  only  in  philological 
study  and  psychological  analysis  but  in  the  moral  and  social 
problems  of  history. 

Such  are  the  principal  fields  in  which  the  student  of 
literary  history  may  exercise  his  powers.  Before  starting  out, 
is  it  not  a  wise  precaution  to  make  inquiries  as  to  the  neces- 
sary equipment  and  the  best  route  to  his  destination  ?  The 
following  pages  are  written  in  the  hope  of  answering  these 
inquiries. 

First,  the  student  must  become  familiar  with  the  imple- 
ments of  his  trade — the  bibliographical  material  of  French 
literature. 

Next,  he  must  take  up,  one  after  the  other,  each  type  of 
problem  that  has  been  mentioned.  He  should  learn  to  state 
it,  to  define  its  terms,  and  to  reach  solutions.  For  him  noth- 
ing will  be  so  valuable  as  to  study  the  works  of  those  who 
have  skillfully  and  successfully  accomplished  researches  of 


OBJECTS  AND  METHODS  n 

this  kind ;  perhaps,  for  the  benefit  of  the  inexperienced  stu- 
dent, these  works  may  be  coaxed  into  giving  up  the  secret  of 
their  methods. 

Certainly  no  one  can  acquire  true  learning  or  genius 
through  mere  observation;  but  observation  will  help  the 
conscientious  young  apprentice,  who  some  day  in  the  great 
workshop  of  his  choice  may  become  a  skilled  worker.1 

1The  few  references  given  in  the  following  list  do  not  claim  to  offer  a 
bibliography  of  literary  criticism  in  general,  or  even  of  the  "  methods  of 
literary  history".  They  are  intended  merely  to  familiarize  the  student  with 
the  discussions  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  and  with  the  idea  of  literary  his- 
tory held  today  by  its  universally  recognized  representatives. 

1.  The  essential  reading  is  as  follows : 

LANSON,  G.  De  la  methode  dans  les  sciences  (second  series,  1911),  pp.  221—264 
("La  Methodede  Phistoire  litteraire").  First  published  in Revuedumois, October, 
i9io,pp.  385-413;  followed  by  an  interesting  discussion,  April,  i9ii,pp.486-497. 

This  reading  is  to  be  supplemented  with  several  articles  by  the  same  author : 

"  Ouverture  des  conferences  a  la  FacultS  des  lettres  de  PUniversite  de  Paris,"  Revui 
Internationale  de  I'enseignement,  November  15,  1901,  p.  385.  See  also  same 
volume,  p.  240. 

"Histoire  litteraire:  resultats  recents  et  problemes  actuels,"  Revue  de  synthese  his- 
torique,  Vol.  I  (1900),  pp.  52-83. 

"Programme  d'etudes  sur  Phistoire  provinciale  et  la  vie  litteraire  en  France,"  Re- 
vue d'histoire  moderns  et  contemporaine,  April  15,  1903- 

"L'Histoire  litteraire  et  la  sociologie,"  Revue  de  mitaphysique  et  de  morale,  July, 
1904. 

"L'Esprit  scientifique  et  la  methode  de  Phistoire  litteraire,"  Revue  de  I'Universite 
de  Bruxelles,  December,  1909. 

Hommes  et  livres,  Preface.    1895. 

2.  The  following  reading  is  recommended,  as  a  means  of  gaining  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  various  types,  methods,  or  systems  of  literary  criticism  that  have 
been  mentioned  in  this  chapter : 

SAINTE-BEUVE.  Catiseries  du  lundi,  Vol.  XIII;  Nouveaux  lundis,  Vol.  VIII  (two 
important  articles  on  Taine);  Portraits  litteraires,  Vol.  Ill;  Correspondance, 
Vol.  I,  p.  315,  and  Vol.  II,  p.  40. 

TAINE.  Introduction  to  the  Histoire  de  la  litterature  anglaise  (Babbitt  edition); 
Essais  de  critique  et  d'histoire,  particularly  Prefaces  of  1858  and  1866. 

GIRAUD,  V.    Essai  sur  Taine  (4th  ed.,  1909). 

BRUNETIERE.    Introduction  to  the  Evolution  des  genres.    1890. 


12  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

On  Brunetiere: 

GIRAUD,  in  Maitrcs  d'autrejois  et  d'aujourd'hui,  1913,  and  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes, 
March,  1908,  pp.  52-82. 

FRANCE,  A.    La  Vie  litteraire,  Prefaces  in  Vols.  I  and  II. 

BABBITT,  I.   The  Masters  oj  Modern  French  Criticism  (1912).    See  the  review  of 

this  book  by  D.  Mornet,  in  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1915,  pp.  301-303. 
HENNEQUIN,  E.    La  Critique  scientifique  (2d  ed.,  1894). 
RENARD,  G.    La  Methode  scientifique  de  I'histoire  litteraire.    1900. 
PAUTHIER,  H.  and  J.    L'Histoire  litteraire.    1911. 
LANSON,  G.    "Les  Etudes  sur  la  litterature  franqaise  moderne,"  La  Science  Jranfaise, 


MORNET,  D.    "Les  Methodes  de  I'histoire  litteraire,  etudiees  a  propos  de  I'histoire 

d'une  ceuvre:  La  Nouvelle  Helo'ise,"  Revue  des  cours  et  conferences,  Vols.  XXII1 

andXXII2  (1913-1914). 
MORNET,  D.    "Les  Methodes  dans  les  recents  travaux  d'histoire  litteraire,"  Revue 

du  mots,  June  10,  1914- 
ESTEVE,  E.    Critique  litteraire  (1915).    Reprinted  from  Memoires  de  I'Acadimie 

Stanislas,  1913-1914. 
SERRURIER,  C.    Introduction  a  I'histoire  de  la  litterature  /ranfaise  moderne.   Ley- 

den,  1914- 
URBAIN,  C.    "Histoire  litteraire  et  erudition,"  Revue  du  clerge  franfais,  March  15, 

1914- 

GAYLEY,  C.  M.,  and  KURTZ,  B.  P.    Methods  and  Materials  oj  Literary  Criticism. 
Boston,  1920. 


CHAPTER  II 
IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS:    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Before  undertaking  any  kind  of  work  the  workman  should 
learn  to  know  his  tools ;  without  this  indispensable  familiar- 
ity he  is  doomed  to  an  immense  loss  of  time,  to  uncertain 
gropings,  and  to  many  mistakes.  Doubtless  each  subject 
calls  for  a  special  bibliography,  but  to  acquire  this  bibliog- 
raphy— and  to  acquire  it  by  the  shortest  and  safest  route 
— it  is  necessary  to  consult  a  certain  number  of  works  of 
general  reference,  through  which  all  special  references  are 
discovered,  and  in  this  way  to  be  practically  sure  that  noth- 
ing essential  has  escaped  or  been  overlooked. 

It  is  to  this  general  bibliography  of  French  literature, 
above  all,  that  the  student  should  introduce  himself.  A  good 
idea,  before  starting  to  explore  this  limited  province,  is  to 
take  a  look  at  the  map  of  a  vaster  region,  spread  out  in 
works  of  bibliographical  reference  of  larger  scope. 

I.  SOME  WORKS  OF  GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY  x 

i.  The  first  guide  whose  acquaintance  it  is  well  to  make 
is  C.  V.  Langlois,  Manuel  de  bibliographic  historique  (Part  I, 
1901  (2d  ed.);  Part  II,  1904).  This  book,  intended  pri- 

1Is  it  necessary  to  say  that  the  works  mentioned  under  this  heading  are 
books  of  very  general  reference,  which  should  be  known  and  which  are  a  help 
to  the  student  in  finding  his  way  among  the  complicated  paths  of  bibliog- 
raphy, but  which  need  not  be  consulted  every  time  that  the  bibliography  on 
a  particular  question  is  being  compiled?  This  remark  would  be  unnecessary 
if  experience  did  not  prove  that  the  error  is  sometimes  committed  by  students 
whose  critical  sense  does  not  equal  their  zeal  and  good  intentions. 

13 


14  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

marily  for  students  of  history,  makes  a  useful  general  intro- 
duction to  any  work  in  literary  bibliography.  The  following 
paragraphs  will  be  found  especially  profitable : 

Sections  3-38,  Bibliographies  universelles. 

Sections  63-68,  Bibliographies nationales:  France  (very  important) . 

Sections  95-98,  Bibliographies  generates. 

Sections  129-131,  Dictionnaires  de  biographic. 

Sections  147-148,  Presse  quotidienne.1 

2.  For  general  bibliography  prior  to  1866  see  the  Biblio- 
theca  bibliographica  of  J.  Petzholdt,2  particularly  the  follow- 
ing sections : 

Pages  1-65,  Einleitender  Theil:  works  of  general  bibliography. 

Pages  66-279,  Allgemeiner  Theil:  general  references;  rare  books; 
censured  and  forbidden  works;  and,  especially,  individual 
biographies  in  alphabetical  order  (pp.  156-279). 

Pages  323-325>  France. 

1Langlois's  Manuel  will  be  the  natural  starting-point  when  the  student  of 
literature  wishes  to  extend  his  bibliography  in  the  direction  of  history  proper, 
whether  he  is  trying  to  acquire  the  indispensable  historical  background  or 
whether  he  is  clearing  up  some  allusion  or  difficulty  in  interpretation.  He 
should  know,  besides  the  Histoire  de  France  depuis  les  origines  jusqu'a  la 
Revolution,  published  under  the  direction  of  E.  Lavisse  (1900-1911),  and  its 
continuation  for  the  contemporary  period  (the  chapters  on  the  history  of 
society  and  of  fine  arts  and  letters  are  excellent) ;  P.  Caron,  Bibliographic 
des  travaux  publics  de  1866  a  1807  sur  I'histoire  de  la  France  depuis  1789 
(Paris,  1912) ;  and  the  Repertoire  methodique  de  I'histoire  moderne  et  con- 
temporaine  de  la  France  (from  the  Italian  wars  in  the  sixteenth  century), 
begun  in  1898,  and  published  thereafter  in  supplements  by  the  Revue  d'his- 
toire  moderne  et  contemporaine .  It  is  helpful  also  to  know  the  other  leading 
French  historical  periodicals :  Revue  historique,  Revue  des  etudes  historiques, 
Revue  des  questions  historiques,  and  especially  the  Revue  de  synthese  his- 
torique, because  of  its  bibliographies  and  "revues  generates ",  or  general  sur- 
veys of  the  various  fields  of  historical  research. 

2Bibliotheca  bibliographica.  Kritisches  Verzeichniss  der  das  Gesammt- 
gebiet  der  Bibliographic  betreffenden  Litteratur  des  In-  und  Auslandes,  in 
systematischer  Ordnung  bearbeitet.  Mit  alphabetischem  Namen-  und  Sach- 
register  (8vo).  Leipzig,  1866. 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS:  BIBLIOGRAPHY       15 

Pages  325-339,  French  literature. 

Pages  705-726,  Literature,  under  the  words  Frankreich,  Poesie, 
Romane,  etc. 

The  reference  to  each  work,  which  is  usually  exact,  is 
followed  by  a  critical  note,  short  but  valuable. 

3 .  The  classic  but  rather  antiquated  work  of  Petzholdt  may 
be  supplemented  by  the  Manuel  de  bibliographic  generate  of 
H.  Stein  (Paris,  1898). x  The  classification  of  subjects  is  ex- 
plained in  pages  x-xiv  of  the  Introduction.  The  parts  that 
particularly  concern  the  history  of  literature  are  the  following : 

Pages  1-8,  Bibliographies  universelles. 

Pages  21-24,  France. 

Pages  237-323,  Philologie  et  belles-lettres,  especially  pp.  237-238, 
Generalites  et  repertoires  nominaux ;  2  68-2  7 1 ,  Litterature  f ran- 
qaise;  2 7 7, Traditions  populaires  (France)  ;  281,  Theatre;  284, 
Romans;  288,  Catalogues  de  theses;  289,  Litterature  variee; 
300,  Bio-bibliographie  litteraire;  309,  Livres  condamnes;  311, 
Anonymes  et  pseudonymes;  313-323,  Presse  periodique. 

Pages  407-412,  Histoire  moderne  et  contemporaine. 

Pages  42 1-424,  Histoire  de  France. 

Pages  433-434,  Archives. 

Pages  438-461,  Histoire  de  rimprimerie. 

Pages  482-483,  Livres  a  gravures. 

Pages  497-554,  Biographie. 

The  work  is  completed  by  two  valuable  Appendixes: 

a.  Repertoire  des  tables  generates  de  periodiques  de  toutes 
langues  (pp.  637-710),  which  shows,  for  each  periodical,  the  na- 
ture, number,  and  date  of  the  published  indexes. 

lfrhe  Bibliographic  des  bibliographies  of  L.  Vallee  (Paris,  1883;  Supple- 
ment, 1884)  is  not  to  be  recommended.  It  is  obsolete,  incomplete,  and  other- 
wise imperfect.  If,  however,  Stein's  book  is  not  available,  it  may  be  useful  to 
turn  to  the  following  chapters  in  Vallee's :  p.  618,  Bibliographic  generate  ; 
p.  621,  Bibliographic  speciale;  p.  623,  Biographie;  p.  664,  France;  p.  681,  His- 
toire litteraire.  See  also  the  second  part  of  the  book,  Table  methodique,  under 
the  names  of  French  writers  or  of  French  provinces. 


1 6  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

b.  Repertoire  des  catalogues  d'imprimes  des  principales  biblio- 
theques  du  monde  entier.1 

4.  Useful  information  may  often  be  gained  from  the  two 
following  works:  British  Museum  Library,  List  of  Biblio- 
graphical Works  in  the  Reading  Room  (2d  ed.,  London, 
1889),  and  W.  P.  Courtney,  A  Register  of  National  Bibliog- 
raphy, which  contains  a  good  number  of  references  to  books 
or  articles  published  in  other  countries  than  Great  Britain 
(3  vols.)  (London,  1905-1912).  Lastly,  the  inexperienced 
student  will  avoid  long  and  fruitless  research  by  reading 
A.  B.  Kroeger,  Guide  to  the  Study  and  Use  of  Reference 
Books  (3d  ed.)  (I.  C.  Mudge,  Chicago,  1917). 


II.  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  MODERN  FRENCH  LITERATURE 

THE  MANUEL  BIBLIOGRAPHIQUE  OF  G.  LANSON 

The  book  that  should  be  a  constant  companion  to  the 
student  is  the  Manuel  bibliographique  de  la  litterature  fran- 
qaise  moderne  (1500-1900),  by  G.  Lanson,  published  in  four 
parts  (1909-1912),  followed  by  a  Supplement  and  an  Index 
general  (1914),  and  republished  with  corrections  and  addi- 
tions in  one  volume  in  i92i.2  Like  all  good  tools  the  Manuel 
should  be  used  intelligently ;  before  expecting  too  much  of  it, 
it  is  wise  to  understand  fully  what  it  is  meant  to  be. 

1It  is  well  to  know  of  these  catalogues  when  studying  an  author  whose  life 
or  literary  activity  is  connected  with  a  particular  locality :  for  instance,  the  cata- 
logues of  the  libraries  of  Bordeaux  for  Montaigne  and  Montesquieu ;  of  Geneva, 
Lausanne,  or  Neuchatel  for  J.-J.  Rousseau ;  of  Lyons  for  Louise  Labe,  etc. 

2  Read  good  reviews  of  the  book  by  F.  Baldensperger,  in  Revue  de  philo- 
logie  jranqaise  et  de  litterature,  Vol.  XXIV  (1910),  p.  72,  and  Vol.  XXVII 
(1913),  p.  129;  by  D.  Mornet,  in  Revue  du  mois,  June  10,  1911,  p.  732;  by 
A.  Monglond,  in  Revue  de  synthese  historique,  Vol.  XXVI  (1913),  p.  123; 
and  by  K.  R.  Gallas,  in  NeophUologus,  Vol.  I  (1916),  p.  308.  The  latter 
gives  several  interesting  additions  and  corrections. 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS:  BIBLIOGRAPHY       17 

Here  is  a  bibliography  a  la  fran$aise,  simple,  clear,  and 
methodical.  There  is  no  wish  to  impress  the  reader  by  ac- 
cumulating titles  and  references;  throughout  there  is  an 
effort  to  simplify,  to  blaze  trails  through  the  immense  biblio- 
graphical forest,  and  to  lay  out  paths  easy  to  follow  and 
always  leading  somewhere.  "The  two  principles  that  have 
guided  me",  writes  Lanson,  "have  been  (i)  to  show  the 
way  to  what  I  have  omitted;  (2)  to  compose  a  handbook 
that  corresponds  to  the  culture  and  the  practical  needs  of 
the  average  student  of  French  literature.  ...  To  be  useful 
to  students  has  been  my  constant  thought."1  Therefore  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Manuel  is  not  intended  to 
give  all  the  references  that  it  is  possible  to  gather,  but  aims 
only  at  directing  the  student  where  and  how  to  find  what 
he  needs. 

The  book  is  composed  of  six  parts :  Introduction,  Biblio- 
graphic generate ;  Seizieme  siecle ;  Dix-septieme  siecle ;  Dix- 
huitieme  siecle ;  Revolution  et  Empire ;  Dix-neuvieme  siecle. 
This  division  might  cause  inconvenience  by  cutting  in  halves 
writers  who  belong  in  two  centuries,  and  by  giving  an  inexact 
idea  of  the  continuity  of  literary  movements,  did  not  the 
author  prevent  this  in  two  ways :  ( i )  a  system  of  cross  refer- 
ences makes  it  easy  to  piece  together  everything  that  relates 
to  an  author  who  lived  in  two  centuries  or  who  was  interested 
in  several  branches  of  literature;  (2)  special  chapters  bring 
out  clearly  every  period  of  transition  and  all  transformations 
of  literary  ideals  or  theories.2 

Taking  the  Manuel  bibliographique  as  a  whole,  it  is  de- 
cidedly superior  in  two  respects  to.  all  previous  reference 
books  of  French  literature. 

1  Preface,  p.  vii. 

2  See  Vol.  II,  chap,  xxvii,  "Le  Passage  du  dix-septieme  au  dix-huitieme 
siecle";  Vol.  IV,  chap,  xi,  "Du  Romantisme  au  Parnasse,"  and  chap,  xii,  §3, 
"  Du  Parnasse  au  Symbolisme." 


1 8  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

On  the  one  hand,  it  constantly  mentions  the  reviews  and 
bulletins  of  learned  societies.  "A  large  part  of  the  useful 
work  is  done  by  them,  and  it  is  these  that  students  have  the 
greatest  difficulty  in  unearthing."1  Often  essential  elements 
in  a  detailed  study  are  buried  in  an  article  the  importance  of 
which  could  not  be  suspected  from  its  title  or  origin.2  Left 
to  himself  a  student  would  hardly  ever  discover  it. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Manuel  is  much  more,  and  much 
better,  under  its  apparent  dryness,  than  a  list  of  titles  and 
names.  It  is,  indeed,  a  mine  of  valuable  suggestions  for 
studies  to  be  undertaken  and  for  the  interpretation  of  great 
literary  events.  The  author  has  "chosen  a  system  that 
sketches  a  design  for  the  methodical  study  of  modern  French 
literature",  and  "by  the  very  arrangement  of  the  subject- 
matter,  has  suggested  the  work  that  should  be  done".3  In 
this  way  many  features  that  do  not  usually  find  room  in  a 
bibliography  are  given  their  place,  and  their  importance  is 
made  clear:  for  instance,  works  and  discussions  relative  to 
the  authenticity,  the  history,  and  the  transformations  of 
the  texts;  abundant  lists  of  translations  from  ancient  or 
foreign  writers  and  of  reprints  of  previous  works  of  note 
(this  makes  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
intellectual  surroundings  among  which  the  great  writers  have 
developed) ;  works  on  the  sources  that  have  been  discovered 
for  every  important  literary  production;  and,  for  each  of 
the  writers  who  have  in  their  day  been  decisive  elements  in 
the  general  evolution  of  thought  or  of  an  artistic  ideal,  all  the 
criticisms  or  apologies,  discussions  or  controversies,  that 
show  the  reaction  of  the  reading-public.  In  the  same  way, 
several  chapters  are  devoted  to  the  evolution  of  doctrines, 

1  Preface,  p.  viii. 

2  For  instance,  many  unpublished  letters,  biographical  documents,  etc. 
3 Preface,  p.  vii. 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS:  BIBLIOGRAPHY       19 

theories,  literary  or  artistic  ideals,  and  to  the  history  of  the 
social  environment,  condition  of  men  of  letters,  pedagogical 
doctrines,  salons  and  coteries.  Every  one  of  these  chapters 
is  full  of  interesting  suggestions  and  opens  new  horizons  to 
the  student  who  tries  to  read  them  in  the  right  spirit. 

If  a  very  matter-of-fact  piece  of  advice  is  not  out  of  place 
here,  it  may  be  said  that  a  good  practice  is  to  have  the 
Manuel  bound  interleaved  with  blank  pages,  on  which  each 
day,  as  the  student  progresses  in  his  work,  he  will  add  such 
names,  titles,  and  other  information  as  will  make  the  book 
far  more  than  a  tool — the  friend  of  every  working-hour.1 

1The  titles  of  the  principal  handbooks  of  the  history  of  French  literature 
are  found  in  the  Manuel.  Here  is  a  list  of  those  that  offer  abridged  biblio- 
graphical information  of  some  value : 

Histoire  de  la  langue  et  de  la  literature  franfaise  des  origines  a  1900,  published 
under  the  direction  of  L.  Petit  de  Julleville  (8  vols.)  (1896-1899).  Convenient 
bibliographies  at  the  end  of  every  chapter. 

LANSON,  G.    Histoire  de  la  litterature  jranfaise  (i2th  ed.,  1914). 

BRUNETIERE,  F.  Manuel  del' histoire  de  la  litterature  iran^aise  (1897).  Systematic 
and  interesting;  the  bibliographical  paragraphs  may  at  times  be  misleading,  in 
the  sense  that  they  contain  almost  exclusively  the  works  used  by  Brunetiere  in 
evolving  his  highly  systematic  views. 

WRIGHT,  C.  H.  C.    A  History  oj  French  Literature.    1912. 

HERRIOT,  E.  Precis  de  V histoire  des  lettres  jranqaises  (1905).  A  good,  clear,  simple, 
fairly  complete  manual,  with  satisfactory  bibliographical  notes. 

BRATJNSCHVIG,  M.  Notre  Litterature  etudiee  dans  les  textes  (2  vols.)  (1920).  By 
far  the  most  convenient  handbook  now  in  existence,  with  bibliographies  brought 
up  to  date,  accurate  information,  and  suggestive  discussions.  It  is  to  be  recom- 
mended highly  to  graduate  students. 

Although  the  two  following  books  include  much  more  than  French  liter- 
ature, they  supply  most  useful  bibliographical  material: 
GAYLEY  and  SCOTT.    An  Introduction  to  the  Methods  and  Materials  oj  Literary 

Criticism.    1899. 

GAYLEY  and  KURTZ.  Methods  and  Materials  of  Literary  Criticism  (Lyric,  Epic, 
and  Allied  Forms  oj  Poetry)  (1920).  See  especially  the  bibliographical  appen- 
dix, pp.  787-846. 


20  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

BOOKS  OF  LITERARY  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  REFERENCE  AND  OF 
NATIONAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Since  Lanson's  Manuel  is,  by  its  very  definition,  a  selec- 
tive list  of  authors  and  works,  and  since  it  is  carried  only  to 
the  year  1920,  the  student  must  supplement  it  by  other 
sources  of  bibliographical  information,  so  as  to  be  able  both 
to  explore,  if  need  be,  the  entire  printed  output  of  a  given 
epoch  and  to  follow,  from  day  to  day,  the  publication  of  all 
important  new  works  that  bear  on  literary  history. 

These  two  sources  of  information  are  ( i )  works  that  may 
come  under  the  heading  of  bibliographical  reference  books, 
and  registers  of  national  bibliographies;  (2)  notices  given 
periodically  in  the  reviews  and  newspapers. 

A.  Reference  Books  and  National  Bibliographies 

A  convenient  and  reliable  guide  is  R.  A.  Peddie,  National 
Bibliographies:  A  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Works  which 
Register  the  Books  Published  in  Each  Country  (London, 
1912).  "The  official,  semi-official,  and  trade  bibliographies 
of  a  country",  the  author  says,  "are  the  bases  of  all  biblio- 
graphical work.  From  them  we  learn  (imperfectly  in  most 
cases)  what  books  are  published,  and  their  subject  indexes 
give  us  the  first  instalment  of  titles  for  our  special  bibliogra- 
phies. It  is  necessary  for  all  who  make  researches  in  any 
way  touching  the  bibliographical  field  to  become  acquainted 
with  these  most  valuable  tools."  The  following  are  the  es- 
sential bibliographies : 

i.  France  before  1840?  For  the  sixteenth  century,  La 
Croix  du  Maine  and  Du  Verdier,  Bibliotheque  fran^aise,  the 

1For  more  detailed  information  see  Lanson,  Manuel,  Nos.  52-61. 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS:  BIBLIOGRAPHY       21 

revised  and  enlarged  edition  published  by  Rigoley  de  Juvigny 
(6  vols.,  4to).  Paris,  1 772-1 773.1 

For  the  seventeenth  and  the  early  eighteenth  century  the 
most  complete  compilation  of  bibliographical  data  is  found  in 
T.  Georgi,  Allgemeine  Europaische  Bucher-Lexici.  Funjter 
Theil  in  welchem  die  Frantzosischen  Auctores  und  Bucher 
.  .  .  geschrieben  und  gedrucket  warden  sind  .  .  .  (fol.). 
Leipzig,  I742.2 

For  the  eighteenth  and  the  early  nineteenth  century, 
J.  M.  Querard,  La  France  litteraire  (12  vols.,  8vo).  Paris, 
i827-i864.3 

2.  France  after  1840.  Lorenz-Jordell,  Catalogue  general 
de  la  librairie  frangaise,  begun  in  1840,  is  made  up  both  of 
volumes  arranged  alphabetically  under  the  authors'  names 
and  of  extremely  valuable  volumes  of  Tables  methodiques. 
It  is  subdivided  in  the  following  manner : 

Vols.  I-VI,  1840-1875 ;  Vols.  VII-VIII,  Tables. 
Vols.  IX-X,  1876-1885 ;  Vol.  XI,  Tables. 
Vol.  XII,  1886-1890;  Vol.  XIII,  Tables. 
Vols.  XIV-XV,  1891-1899;  Vols.  XVI-XVII,  Tables. 
Vols.  XVIII-XIX,  1900-1905 ;  Vol.  XX,  Tables. 
Vols.  XXI-XXII,  1906-1909 ;  Vol.  XXIII,  Tables. 
Vol.  XXIV,  1910-1912  ;  Vol.  XXV,  Tables. 
Vol.  XXVI,  1913-1915;  Vol.  XXVII,  Tables. 

1For  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  the  incomparable  collection  of 
bibliographical  cards  (250,000)  of  E.  Picot  has  just  (1920)  been  donated  by 
his  widow  to  the  Bibliotheque  nationale  for  the  use  of  scholars  and  students. 
See  also  H.  Omont,  Anciens  Inventaires  et  catalogues  de  la  Bibliotheque  na- 
tionale, Vol.  I  (La  Librairie  royale  a  Blots,  Fontainebleau  et  Paris  au  XVI' 
siecle  (1908)),  and  Beaulieux,  "Supplement  au  Catalogue  des  livres  du  XVIe 
siecle  (1501-1550)  de  1'Universite  de  Paris,"  in  Revue  des  bibliotheques,  1918. 

2 See  also  H.  Omont,  Anciens  Inventaires  et  catalogues  de  la  Bibliotheque 
nationale,  Vol.  IV  (La  Bibliotheque  royale  a  Paris  au  XVIF  siecle  (1914)). 

3  Completed  by  R.  A.  Peddie  and  Q.  Waddington  in  Table  alphabetique  des 
matieres  de  la  France  litteraire  de  Querard  et  de  ses  Supplements. 


22  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

H.  Le  Soudier,  Bibliographic  jranqaise  (second  series), 
Vol.  I,  1900-1904  (Paris,  1908),  and  Vol.  II,  1905-1909 
(Paris,  1911),  supplemented  by  the  weekly  Memorial  de  la 
librairie  fran$aise,  the  monthly  and  yearly  indexes  of  which 
are  valuable. 

Bibliographic  de  la  France.  Journal  general  de  Vim- 
primerie  et  de  la  librairie ,  weekly,  issued  since  1811.  This 
publication  is  the  record  of  everything  printed  in  France 
and  delivered  to  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  in  compliance 
with  the  law  on  the  " depot  legal",  which  requires  a  publisher 
to  deposit  a  certain  number  of  copies  of  every  book  or 
pamphlet  he  prints.  Of  course,  books  that  for  some  reason 
have  not  been  delivered  are  not  mentioned,  but  as  a  rule  this 
inconvenience  is  not  of  real  importance.  At  the  end  of  each 
year  the  Bibliographic  is  bound  into  one  volume,  completed 
by  an  index  of  authors,  a  list  of  new  periodical  publications, 
and  a  catalogue  of  subjects,  the  most  important  sections  be- 
ing: "Litterature  franchise,"  "Societes  savantes,"  "Sciences 
historiques,"  "Bibliographic,"  "Les  Lettres."1 

3.  France  in  the  nineteenth  century.  G.  Vicaire,  Manuel 
de  V amateur  de  limes  du  XIXe  siecle  (7  vols.)  (1894- 
1910)  and  the  Table  des  outrages  cites  (1920). 

H.  P.  Thieme,  Guide  bibliographique  de  la  litterature 
jranqaise  de  1800  a  1906  (8vo)  (Paris,  1907)  is  indispen- 
sable to  students  of  modern  and  contemporary  French  litera- 
ture. It  contains  for  each  author  ( i )  a  chronological  list  of 
his  works,  with  the  name  of  the  publisher;  (2)  a  chronologi- 
cal list  of  the  books  in  which  the  author  is  discussed;  (3)  a 
valuable  list  of  articles  from  periodicals  in  all  languages,  rela- 
tive to  the  author.  The  second  part  of  the  volume  is  devoted 
to  works  on  the  history  of  the  language,  literature,  and 

aA  student  of  French  literature  should  make  a  point  of  going  at  regular 
intervals  to  the  library  of  the  university  to  look  through  the  latest  numbers. 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS:  BIBLIOGRAPHY       23 

civilization  of  France.  Although  naturally  rather  summary, 
this  sort  of  topic  index  is  of  great  value.1 

4.  Countries  other  than  France.  For  Germany  the  Voll- 
stdndiges  Bucher-Lexicon,  by  C.  G.  Kayser,  covers  German 
bibliography  from  1750  up  to  the  present  time;  it  is  supple- 
mented by  several  subject  indexes.  The  current  bibliogra- 
phy is  recorded  (i)  in  Hinrichs'  Halbjahrs-Katalog  der  im 
Deutschen  Buchhandel  erschienenen  Bucher,  Zeitschrijten, 
Landkarten,  etc.  Mit  Registern  nach  Stichworten  und  Wis- 
senschaften,  whose  title,  since  1916,  has  been  changed  to 
Halbjahrs-Verzeichnis  etc.  (for  every  year  there  are  two 
indexes — one  by  authors,  one  by  subjects);  (2)  in  the 
W  ochentliches  Verzeichnis  der  erschienenen  und  der  vor- 
bereiteten  Neuigkeiten  des  Deutschen  Buchhandels,  which, 
since  1893,  has  continued  the  Allgemeine  Bibliographic. 
This  periodical  corresponds  to  the  Bibliographie  de  la 
France ;  it  is  arranged  according  to  subjects. 

For  Great  Britain  the  English  Catalogue  of  Books,  by 
S.  Low,  records  all  the  English  bibliography  since  1835.  Up 
to  the  volume  1881-1889  (London,  1893)  the  author  index 
and  the  subject  index  are  published  in  two  separate  parts; 
after  that  date  they  are  printed  together  in  one  volume.  The 
current  register  is  the  Publisher's  Circular,  a  fortnightly 
publication. 

For  Italy  we  have  ( i )  the  Catalogo  generale  delta  libre- 
ria  italiana  (1874-1900),  by  A.  Pagliaini  (3  vols.)  (Milan, 
1901-1905),  completed  by  an  Indice  per  materie  (Milan, 
1910,  A-F;  1915,  F-P) ;  (2)  the  Bollettino  delle  publica- 
zioni  italiane  ricevute  per  diritto  di  stampa,  issued  by  the 

1As  was  inevitable,  the  Guide  bibliographique,  among  its  forty  thousand 
odd  references,  includes  many  errors  of  detail.  Some  of  these  have  been  cor- 
rected in  the  Revue  critique,  Vol.  II  (1907),  pp.  234-237,  and  in  other 
reviews  of  the  book. 


24  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

National  Library  at  Florence;  (3)  for  current  bibliography, 
the  monthly  Bibliografia  italiana,  founded  in  1867  (very 
clearly  arranged). 

For  the  United  States  the  most  convenient  reference  books 
are  the  following:  (i)  the  American  Catalog  (3  vols.),  cov- 
ering 1900-1910;  (2)  the  United  States  Catalog  (3  vols.: 
Vol.  I,  Books  in  print  January  i,  1912  ;  Vol.  II,  1912-1917; 
Vol.  Ill,  1918-1921),  continued  currently  as  the  Cumulative 
Book  Index',  (3)  for  current  bibliography,  the  Publisher's 
Weekly.1 

5.  Anonymous  and  pseudonymous  books.  Investigations, 
especially  for  the  periods  of  absolute  power,  when  clandes- 
tine literature  was  a  necessity,  will  often  lead  the  student  to 
consult  books,  pamphlets,  and  controversial  documents  pub- 
lished without  the  author's  name  or  under  an  assumed  name. 
The  real  name  will  be  found  in  the  following  works : 

BARBIER,  A.    Dictionnaire  des  ouvrages  anonymes  (4  vols.,  8vo) 

(3d  ed.,  1879). 
QUERARD,  J.-M.  Les  Supercheries  litteraires  (3  vols.,  8vo)    (26 

ed.,  1879). 
BRUNEI,  G.    Supplement  a  la  derniere  edition  des  deux  ouvrages 

precedents  (8vo).    i889.2 

B.  Current  Bibliography  in  Literary  Periodicals 

There  are  several  reviews  that  regularly  supply  ample 
lists  of  the  books  and  articles  on  literary  history  published 

1The  new  works  of  bibliographical  reference,  literary  or  otherwise,  are 
recorded  in  Bibliographic  des  Bibliotheks-  und  Buchwesens,  published  as  sup- 
plements (Beihefte)  to  the  Zentralblatt  fur  Bibliothekswesen  (Leipzig), begun 
in  1905,  and  in  the  American  Library  Annual  (New  York),  begun  in  1912. 
For  the  national  bibliographies  of  other  countries  see  R.  A.  Peddie,  National 
Bibliographies  (London,  1912). 

2 Completed  by  H.  Cdani  in  "Additions  et  corrections  au  Dictionnaire  des 
anonymes  de  Barbier,"  Revue  des  bibliotheques,  October-December,  1901. 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS:   BIBLIOGRAPHY       25 

during  a  given  period.  Among  them  the  most  useful  and  the 
most  complete  are  the  following : 

Revue  d'histoire  litteraire  de  la  France.  Reviews  several  im- 
portant French  daily  papers,  but,  unfortunately,  no  foreign 
periodicals. 

Kritischer  Jahresbericht  iiber  die  Fortschritte  der  romanischen 
Philologie,  published  by  K.  Vollmoller.  Excellent ;  gives  brief 
notices  on  the  contents  of  the  works  or  articles  mentioned. 
The  last  volume  that  I  have  been  able  to  see  is  No.  XIII,  for 
the  years  1911-1912. 

Modern  Language  Notes.  Gives  very  valuable  lists  of  new  pub- 
lications. 

Zeitschrijt  fur  franzosische  Sprache  und  Literatur. 

Literaturblatt  der  germanischen  und  romanischen  Philologie.  Spe- 
cially useful  for  its  reviews  of  many  German  periodicals. 

A  Yearbook  of  Modern  Languages,  by  G.  Waterhouse, 
was  published  in  1920  (8vo)  (Cambridge).  The  bibliograph- 
ical notices  are  admittedly  only  a  choice  among  many,  and 
this  choice  seems  rather  arbitrary.  In  fact,  the  work  does 
not  fulfill  the  promise  of  its  title,  and  in  no  way  takes  the 
place  of  the  Jahresbericht  of  Vollmoller. 

III.  ACADEMIC  DISSERTATIONS 

The  considerable  number  of  theses,  dissertations,  and  aca- 
demic essays  of  all  sorts  devoted  to  some  point  in  French 
literary  history  may  be  approached,  for  the  various  coun- 
tries, through  the  following  lists : 

UNITED  STATES  :  Library  of  Congress,  List  of  American  Doctoral 
Dissertations,  begun  in  1912;  annual;  author  and  subject 
indexes. 

GERIG,  J.  L.  "Advanced  Degrees  and  Doctoral  Dissertations  in 
the  Romance  Languages  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University.  A 


26  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Survey  and  Bibliography,"  in  the  Romanic  Review,  Vol.  VIII 
(1917),  p.  328.  Same  survey  for  Harvard  University,  Vol.  X 
(1919),  p.  67,  and  for  Yale  University,  Vol.  XI  (1920),  p.  70. 

FRANCE:  MAIRE,  A.  Repertoire  alphabetique  des  theses  de  doc- 
tor at-es-letires  des  universites  jranqaises  (1810-1900),  with 
subject  index.  Paris,  1903. 

Catalogue  des  theses  -et  Merits  academiques,  annual  official  pub- 
lication of  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction.  Begun  in  1885. 

GERMANY:  KLUSSMANN,  R.  Systematisches  Verzeichnis  der  Ab- 
handlungen  welche  in  den  Schulschrijten  sdmtlicher  an  dem 
Programmtausche  teilnehmenden  Lehranstalten  erschienen  sind, 
bibliography  covering  the  period  1876-1910  (5  vols.).  Leipzig, 
1889-1916. 

FOCK,  G.  Bibliographischer  Monatsbericht  uber  neu-erschienene 
Schul-  und  Universitdtsschrijten.  Leipzig,  1890-1899. 

Jahresverzeichnis  der  an  den  deutschen  Universitdten  erschienenen 
Schrijten.  Berlin,  1887  up  to  the  present  day. 

For  other  countries  useful  information  may  be  gathered  from  the 
following  publication  of  the  Bibliotheque  nationale  in  Paris: 
Catalogue  des  dissertations  et  des  Merits  academiques  prove- 
nant  des  echanges  avec  les  universites  etrangeres,  et  requs  par 
la  Bibliotheque  nationale.  Issued  annually  since  1884. 

IV.  LARGE  CATALOGUES  OF  LIBRARIES 

i.  British  Museum.  An  admirable  document,  of  which 
students  too  often  know  but  little,  is  the  General  Catalogue 
of  the  British  Museum  Library,  justly  called  "the  richest 
bibliographical  collection  in  the  world".  It  is  published  in 
six  hundred  parts  (4to),  usually  bound  in  one  hundred 
volumes.  A  Supplement  completed  in  1905  records  the 
books  added  to  the  British  Museum  in  the  years  1882-1899. 

The  great  value  of  the  General  Catalogue  is  that  it  gives 
not  only  each  author  with  his  works  in  his  alphabetical 
place,  but  also  (i)  a  very  large  number  of  subject  entries, 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS:  BIBLIOGRAPHY       27 

which  constitute  excellent  bibliographical  notices;  (2)  for 
each  writer,  after  the  list  of  his  works,  every  book,  pamphlet, 
or  document  that  deals  with  him. 

The  catalogue  is  completed  by  the  Subject  Index  of  the 
Modern  Works  added  to  the  Library  of  the  British  Museum 
in  the  Years  1881-1900,  by  G.  K.  Fortescue  (3  vols.)  (Lon- 
don, 1902-1903),  with  five  Supplements,  which  bring  the 
subject  index  up  to  1915. 

2.  Bibliotheque  nationale.  The  Bibliotheque  nationale  in 
Paris,  although  more  complete  in  French  literature  than  the 
British  Museum,  unfortunately  does  not  provide  the  student 
with  so  accessible  a  fund  of  bibliographical  information.  The 
following  material,  however,  is  of  great  importance : 

a.  The  Catalogue  general  des  limes  imprimis  de  la  Bi- 
bliotheque nationale,  begun  in  1897,  is  printed  now  (1922) 
as  far  as  the  end  of  the  letter  H.   It  contains  no  subject  en- 
tries— only  a  list  of  authors  and  of  their  works.   Neverthe- 
less, for  every  writer  whose  name  is  so  fortunate  as  to  begin 
with  a  letter  that  precedes  /  in  the  alphabet,  the  Catalogue 
general  is  the  most  complete  bibliographical  source. 

b.  The  Bulletin  mensuel  des  nouvelles  acquisitions  jran- 
gaises  is  a  precious  record  of  current  bibliography,  especially 
under  the  headings  "Biographic"  and  "Histoire  litteraire". 

c.  The  Catalogue  methodique  de  I'histoire  de  France  con- 
sists of  twelve  volumes  (4to)  (Paris,  1855-1895)  and  con- 
tains material  of  great  importance  to  literary  history  in 
Vols.  IV  (Journaux  et  periodiques)  and  IX-X  (Biographies 
indimduelles) .    The  six  volumes  of  Supplements  in  autog- 
raphy are  not  on  sale.1 

1An  excellent  Repertoire  by  authors  and  subjects  may  be  consulted  in  the 
reading-room  of  the  Bibliotheque  nationale  and  will  quickly  become  familiar 
to  those  who  work  in  Paris ;  it  is  a  collection  of  index  cards  on  which  has  been 
recorded  every  printed  publication  added  to  the  Bibliotheque  since  1882. 


28  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

d.  Library  of  Congress  and  other  American  collections. 
Finally,  an  American  student  should  know  how  to  obtain 
and  how  to  use  the  index  cards  of  the  Library  of  Congress 
and  should  be  familiar  with  the  most  important  of  those 
catalogues  in  which  some  information  may  be  found  for  the 
study  of  French  literature. 

By  applying  to  the  Chief,  Card  Division,  Library  of  Con- 
gress, Washington,  D.  C.,  all  the  index  cards  relating  to  a 
special  topic  can  be  purchased  at  a  very  low  cost  (one  to 
three  or  four  cents  each).  This  is  often  a  convenient  way  of 
collecting  the  elements  of  a  correct  and  useful  bibliography. 

The  most  interesting  catalogues  for  our  purpose  are  the 
following:  A  Catalogue  of  the  Bibliographies  of  Special  Sub- 
jects in  the  Boston  Public  Library,  by  J.  L.  Whitney,  1890 
(see  "France"  and  authors'  names);  A  Selection  of  Cata- 
loguers' Reference  Books  in  New  York  State  Library  (Al- 
bany, N.Y.,  1903) ;  Catalogue  of  the  Astor  Library  (6vols.) ; 
A  Catalogue  of  the  Allen  A.  Brown  Collection  of  Books  Re- 
lating to  the  Stage  in  the  Public  Library  of  the  City  of 
Boston  (1919) ;  Catalogue  of  the  Holier -e  Collection  in  Har- 
vard College  Library,  by  Currier  and  Gay  (Bibliographical 
Contributions,  Harvard  College  Library,  Vol.  IV,  1906)  j1 
Peabody  Institute  Library  Catalogue  (13  vols.)  (Baltimore, 
1882-1895),  which  includes  rare  French  books  and  valuable 
extracts  from  periodicals,  etc. 

V.  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  SUBJECTS  INVOLVING  THE  LITERARY 
RELATIONS  OF  FRANCE  WITH  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

Until  F.  Baldensperger  and  his  collaborators  publish  their 
much-needed  Bibliographic  critique  de  la  litterature  com- 

1See  also  the  catalogues  of  several  special  collections  in  the  J.  P.  Morgan 
Library :  Corneille,  Racine,  Bossuet,  Fenelon,  Regnard,  Le  Sage. 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS:   BIBLIOGRAPHY       29 

paree,  the  essential  source  of  information  for  all  questions 
that  deal  with  the  literary  relations  between  France  and 
other  countries  is  L.  P.  Betz,  La  Litterature  comparee,  essai 
bibliographique  (2d  ed.  by  F.  Baldensperger,  Strassburg, 
1904).  This  clear,  compact  handbook  first  devotes  several 
chapters  to  the  literary  relations  of  France  with  Germany, 
England,  Italy,  Spain,  the  Scandinavian  and  Slavic  coun- 
tries, the  United  States,  and  finally  with  Greek  and  Roman 
literatures.  Then  comes  a  stimulating  chapter  on  what  the 
Germans  call  Stoffgeschichte ;  that  is  to  say,  the  history  of 
the  principal  motifs,  themes,  and  literary  types  of  legendary, 
religious,  or  traditional  origin. 

Betz's  book  may  be  supplemented  by  articles  and  biblio- 
graphical references  found  in  A.  L.  Jellinek,  Bibliographic 
der  vergleichenden  Liter aturgeschichte  (Berlin,  1903),  un- 
fortunately discontinued  and  covering  only  the  period  June, 
i9O2-June,  1903;  Zeitschrijt  fiir  vergleichende  Liter  atur- 
geschichte, begun  in  1888,  discontinued  in  1910;  and  Revue 
de  litterature  comparee,  edited  by  F.  Baldensperger  and 
P.  Hazard,  beginning  January  i,  1921,  and  destined  to  play 
for  comparative  literature  the  part  played  by  the  Revue 
d'histoire  litteraire  for  the  history  of  French  literature.1 

VI.  HISTORY  OF  THE  FRENCH  LANGUAGE 

Even  if  a  student  has  no  intention  of  studying  Romance 
philology  in  the  accepted  sense  of  the  term,  he  may  often 
find  in  his  purely  literary  work  difficulties  in  the  language 
that  expose  him  to  many  errors  and  misinterpretations. 
Whether  he  is  preparing  the  annotation  of  a  text,  elucidating 
and  discussing  an  obscure  passage,  or  attempting  to  describe 
with  precision  an  author's  style,  it  is  not-  enough  for  him  to 

1The  Journal  of  Comparative  Literature,  begun  in  New  York  in  1903,  has 
not  been  continued. 


30  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

know  Littre's  Dictionnaire  or  the  Dictionnaire  general  de  la 
langue  fran$aise  by  Hatzfeld,  Darmesteter,  and  Thomas. 
The  few  works  named  below  will  be  of  use  to  him. 

First,  he  will  find  the  fundamental  bibliography  in  the 
Histoire  de  la  langue  fran$aise  des  origines  a  IQOO,  by 
F.  Brunot,  which  now  covers  the  subject  until  the  latter  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century  and  which  for  more  recent  periods 
may  be  supplemented  by  the  chapters  written  by  the  same 
author  for  the  Histoire  de  la  langue  et  de  la  litterature  fran- 
qaise  of  Petit  de  Julleville.  Lanson's  Manuel  will  also  supply 
interesting  material. 

The  Bibliographic  de  la  syntaxe  du  fran$ais,  by  Horluc 
and  Marinet  (Annales  de  I'Universite  de  Lyon,  1908),  is  fur- 
nished with  a  copious  index  of  words,  expressions,  and 
phrases,  for  which  bibliographical  references  are  given. 

In  E.  Huguet,  Petit  glossaire  des  classiques  frangais 
(Paris,  1907)  many  examples,  picked  for  the  most  part  from 
editions  of  the  collection  of  the  Grands  Ecrivains  de  la 
France  (Hachette,  Paris),  are  gathered,  classified,  and  com- 
pared with  definitions  borrowed  from  the  three  large  dic- 
tionaries of  the  seventeenth  century:  Richelet,  Furetiere, 
Academic  franchise. 

Abundant  examples  are  also  to  be  found  in  A.  Haase,  La 
Syntaxe  jrangaise  au  XVIP  siecle,  translated  from  German 
into  French  by  Obert  in  1898  (new  edition,  Paris,  Delagrave, 
1916). 

VII.  PERIODICAL  LITERATURE 

The  reviews  and  magazines,  whether  of  general  interest  or 
devoted  to  special  branches,  offer  to  the  student — in  ever- 
increasing  numbers — essays,  articles,  or  short  notes  indis- 
pensable to  his  studies  but  often  difficult  to  discover.  It 
almost  seems  as  if  nothing  stamps  a  student's  lack  of  ex- 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS:  BIBLIOGRAPHY       31 

perience  and  training  so  unmistakably  as  his  embarrassment 
before  the  bulky  collections  of  the  various  reviews.  Un- 
fortunately the  practical  knowledge  of  how  to  handle  this 
essential  material  cannot  be  acquired  by  theoretical  advice. 
The  best  method  is  to  spend  a  few  hours  among  the  stacks  in 
the  library  where  the  periodicals  are  stored,  so  as  to  see  them 
at  close  range,  to  note  which  of  them  have  tables  of  con- 
tents, and  to  learn  which  tables  are  reliable,  which  are  in- 
complete or  untrustworthy.  It  is  also  well,  every  month  or 
every  fortnight,  to  look  over  the  new  numbers  of  these 
periodicals  and  to  jot  down  on  cards  the  name  of  any  article 
or  note  that  might  prove  helpful. 

There  is,  of  course,  no  general  index  to  the  periodical 
literature  of  the  world ;  yet  several  large  indexes  are  of  great 
assistance  in  digging  out  whatever  material  is  to  be  found 
here.  Some  of  the  following  works  are  not  only  of  national 
range  but  include  periodicals  in  many  languages : 

FRANCE.  The  Repertoire  bibliographique  des  principales  revues 
jranqaises  of  D.  Jordell,  discontinued  in  1902,  covers  only  1897- 
1899.  For  more  recent  publications  it  is  necessary  to  turn  either 
to  foreign  indexes,  not  always  reliable  for  French  reviews,  or  to 
the  collections  and  tables  of  the  reviews  themselves. 

ENGLAND  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Poole's  Index  to  Periodical 
Literature  (2  vols.  and  5  supplements)  (Boston,  1891)  covers  the 
period  1802-1907.  The  Review  of  Reviews,  Index  to  the  Period- 
icals of  1890-1 Q02  (13  vols.)  (London,  1891-1903)  gives  references 
to  several  periodicals  not  indexed  in  Poole.  The  Reader's  Guide  to 
Periodical  Literature  (New  York,  The  H.  W.  Wilson  Company), 
begun  in  1900  and  much  improved  during  the  last  decade,  is  an 
excellent  tool ;  some  of  the  most  important  literary  references  are 
to  be  found  in  the  volumes  of  Supplement,  which  index  periodicals 
of  more  limited  scope.  Monthly  lists  enable  the  student  to  keep 
his  bibliographical  records  up  to  date.  The  Readers'  Guide,  with 


32  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

its  regular  indexes,  monthly  lists,  and  supplements  of  various  kinds, 
is  complicated  and  at  first  sight  disconcerting,  but  it  is  worth  while 
to  spend  a  few  moments  in  making  its  acquaintance.  The  Athenceum 
Subject  Index  to  Periodicals  (London,  1916-  ),  begun  in  1915, 
publishes  separate  parts  devoted  to  special  subjects,  such  as  Lan- 
guage and  Literature  (1916).  The  Annual  Magazine  Subject  In- 
dex, edited  by  F.  W.  Faxon,  Boston,  begun  in  1909,  gives  references 
to  "a  selected  list  of  American  and  English  periodicals"  and  may 
occasionally  supplement  Poole  or  the  Readers'  Guide. 

GERMANY.  Germany  supplies  three  first-class  indexes :  The 
Bibliographie  der  deutschen  Zeitschriftenliteratur,  edited  by 
F.  Dietrich,  begun  in  1897  and  issued  currently,  gives  the  contents 
of  about  a  thousand  periodicals  in  the  German  language.  The 
Bibliographie  der  jremdsprachigen  Zeitschriftenliteratur,  edited 
by  the  same  author,  begun  in  1911  and  issued  currently,  is  the 
most  valuable  index  to  periodicals  in  other  languages  than  German  ; 
it  too  is  undoubtedly  in  the  first  rank.  The  Bibliographie  der 
Rezensionen,  edited  by  A.  L.  Jellinek,  begun  in  1901,  gives  refer- 
ences to  the  reviews  on  German  and  foreign  books  appearing  in 
about  five  thousand  periodicals  in  all  languages. 

ITALY.  Catalogo  metodico  degli  scritti  contenuti  nelle  pubbli- 
cazioni  periodiche  italiane  e  straniere;  subject  and  author  in- 
dexes; last  volume  published  in  1914,  covering  1907-1912. 

BELGIUM.  Bibliographie  de  Belgique.  Sommaire  des  periodiques, 
begun  in  1875,  discontinued  in  1914  (17  vols.).  Brussels. 

Besides  the  above  indexes  the  student  should  be  familiar 
with  certain  reviews  especially  interesting  for  our  field,  in 
which  he  will  find  notices  and  criticisms  of  the  new  books 
and  follow  the  general  orientation  of  researches  in  literary 
history  i1 

1  To  enumerate  here  all  periodicals  useful  for  literary  history  is  impossible ; 
the  Index  des  abreviations  at  the  beginning  of  Lanson's  Manuel  gives  some 
idea  of  them. 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS:   BIBLIOGRAPHY       33 

Revue  d'histoire  Utter  air  e  de  la  France,  since  1899.    Tables,  1894- 

1899,  published  in  1900. 
Revue  de  philologie  fran$aise  et  de  litterature,  since  1887.   Index 

of  Vols.  I-X,  published  in  1896. 
Revue  critique  d'histoire  et  de  litterature,  since  1866.    Tables, 

1866-1890,  published  in  1895. 
Literaturblatt  jiir  germanische  und  romanische  Philologie,  since 

1880. 
Archlv  jiir  das  Studium  der  neueren  Sprachen  und  Literaturen, 

since  1846.    Edited  by  L.  Herrig;  often  referred  to  as  Herrig's 

Archil), 

Zeitschrift  jiir  franzb'sische  Sprache  und  Literatur,  since  1879. 
Berliner  Beitrdge  zur  germanischen  und  romanischen  Philologie, 

since  1893. 

Die  neueren  Sprachen,  since  1894. 
Neophilologus  (Groningen),  since  1916. 
Publications  of  the  Modern  Language  Association  of  America, 

since  1884. 

Modern  Language  Notes  (Baltimore),  since  1885. 
Modern  Language  Review  (Cambridge,  England),  since  1905. 
Romanic  Review  (New  York),  since  1910. 
Modern  Philology  (Chicago),  since  1903. 
Revue  de  litterature  comparee  (Paris),  since  1921. 


VIII.  ENCYCLOPEDIAS  AND  LARGE  DICTIONARIES 

There  is  no  need  to  call  the  attention  of  American  stu- 
dents to  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.,  1910-1911, 
29  vols.),  for  they  constantly  use  it  in  every  imaginable  way. 
They  must,  however,  be  reminded  of  two  other  important 
works:  (i)  the  French  Grande  Encyclopedic  (31  vols.) 
(Paris,  1886-1902),  which,  as  far  at  least  as  the  letter 
M  or  N,  is  excellent  and  contains  certain  articles  that  are 


34  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

valuable  contributions  to  literary  history;1  (2)  Brock haus' 
Konversations-Lexikon  (17  vols.)  (Leipzig,  1892-1898). 

France  possesses  no  dictionary  of  national  biography  com- 
parable to  the  English  Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 
The  old  Biographic  universelle  of  Michaud  (2d  ed.,  1842- 

1865)  or  the  Nouvelle  Biographic  generate2  of  Didot  (1857- 

1866)  should  be  mentioned,  even  if  not  recommended. 

The  Dictionnaire  critique  de  biographic  et  d'histoire  of 
Jal  (2d  ed.,  1871)  brings  new  or  unpublished  documents, 
or  interesting  corrections,  to  bear  upon  many  obscure  or 
disputed  points  in  the  biography  of  important  writers. 

IX.  SOME  PRACTICAL  ADVICE 

When  the  student  is  collecting  the  bibliography  of  a  sub- 
ject, it  is  best  to  use  index  cards  3"x  5", — the  size  used  prac- 
tically everywhere  for  cataloguing.  He  should  learn  from 
special  treatises  or  from  a  careful  inspection  of  the  catalogue 
of  a  good  library  how  these  cards  ought  to  be  made  out.3 

Scrupulous  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  spelling  of 
proper  names;  it  is  a  common  experience  to  see  students 
hunting  for  a  book,  failing  to  find  it,  and  giving  up  reading 
it,  only  because  the  author's  name  is  misspelled  in  their  own 
notes.  Not  less  essential  are  such  facts  as  the  special  edition 
that  has  been  used,  its  date,  and  its  size. 

In  many  cases  it  is  advisable  to  copy  bibliographical  cards 
several  times,  so  as  to  have  two  indexes,  one  by  authors,  one 
by  subjects.  For  instance,  here  is  a  bibliographical  card 
correctly  made  out: 

1For  instance,  articles  "Academic,"  "Bossuet,"  "Corneille,"  "Diderot," 
"Moliere,"  etc. 

2  Mediocre  after  the  letter  L. 

8See  G.  E.  Brown,  Indexing,  A  Handbook  of  Instruction  (London  and  New 
York,  1921),  or  any  other  recent  book  on  indexing. 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  TOOLS:  BIBLIOGRAPHY       35 


LEBLOND  (M.  A.) 

Leconte  de  Lisle  d'apres  des  documents  nouveaux 
Paris,  Merc,  de  Fr.,  1906,  i6vo. 


This  card  should  be  duplicated,  in  an  abbreviated  form, 
as  often  as  is  needed  to  enable  the  student  to  turn  back  to 
the  book  for  every  point  on  which  the  latter  may  give  in- 
formation. For  example : 


Sand  (Influence  de  George) 
LEBLOND  (M.A.) 
Leconte  de  Lisle,  pp.  122-123 


When  the  number  of  cards  to  be  handled  is  large,  it  may 
be  a  good  plan  to  use  cards  of  various  colors  for  different 
classes  of  reference:  authors  and  subjects;  books,  periodi- 
cals, newspapers,  etc ;  original  texts,  books  of  general  infor- 
mation, old  and  modern  works,  etc. 


36  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Finally,  if  the  library  to  which  the  student  has  access  does 
not  own  some  important  book,  he  must  remember  that  often 
it  is  possible  to  borrow  from  another  university  or  from  the 
Library  of  Congress. 

Above  all,  he  must  not  be  alarmed  or  dismayed  by  the 
number  of  titles  and  references  that  have  been  piled  into 
this  chapter.  He  will  find  that  a  few  afternoons — perhaps 
three  or  four — given  up  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  to  a 
voyage  of  exploration  through  the  mysteries  of  the  library 
and  its  catalogue  will  save  him  whole  weeks  and  often 
months.  This  is  indeed  the  essential  piece  of  advice:  a  good 
student  must  know  these  indispensable  books  of  reference, 
handle  them,  look  them  over,  make  friends  with  them,  and 
remember  that,  in  libraries  as  well  as  in  life,  the  only  form 
of  real  and  fruitful  friendship  is  the  one  that  does  not  con- 
fine itself  to  formal  relations,  but  is  built  up  on  personal 
contact  and  frequent  meetings. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION 

Although  we  can  read  the  great  Greek  or  Latin  writers  in 
editions  as  correct  as  the  number  and  preservation  of  the 
manuscripts  permit,  editions  that  offer  us  the  authentic  and 
accurate  text  of  many  modern  French  writers  are  still  lack- 
ing. An  effort  has  been  made  in  this  direction  in  the  last  ten 
years,  resulting  in  editions  like  those  of  the  Lettres  philoso- 
phiques  of  Voltaire  or  the  Meditations  of  Lamartine  (Lan- 
son),  the  (Euvres  of  Vigny  (Baldensperger),  the  Profession 
de  joi  du  vicaire  Savoyard  (P.  M.  Masson),  Montaigne's 
Essais  (F.  Strowski),  Hugo's  La  Legende  des  siecles  (P.  Ber- 
ret),  and  certain  others,  which  along  their  different  lines  may 
be  considered  as  models.  The  task  that  remains  is,  however, 
enormous.  We  have  no  satisfactory  edition  of  Rousseau's 
complete  works;  Bossuet,  except  the  (Euvres  oratoires  and 
Correspondance,  almost  all  of  Marot  and  Fenelon,  a  large 
part  of  Voltaire,  nearly  the  whole  of  Victor  Hugo,  and,  I  may 
say,  most  of  the  famous  writers  of  the  nineteenth  century  lack 
serious  and  critical  editions.1  Here  is  an  immense  and  fruit- 
ful field.  The  preparation  of  an  edition,  with  the  study  and 
research  that  it  entails,  offers  admirable  training  for  the  stu- 
dent. And  no  task  could  be  more  useful ;  a  good  edition  of  a 
small  work  of  importance  is  worth  far  more  than  five  hun- 
dred verbose  pages  of  pseudo-philosophy  or  pseudo-criticism. 

1The  so-called  definitive  edition  of  Baudelaire  (1917)  is  as  poor  and  in- 
accurate as  an  edition  may  well  be  (see  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1917, 
PP-  518-521). 

37 


38  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

I.  REQUIREMENTS  OF  A  GOOD  EDITION 

A  good  edition  of  a  modern  literary  text  should  answer  at 
least  the  following  requirements: 

1.  It  should  offer  a  correct  text,  that  is  to  say,  a  text  that 
reproduces  as  exactly  as  possible  what  the  author  wrote,  free 
from  all  errors,  inaccuracies,  and  alterations,  whether  owing 
to  blunders  of  copyists  or  compositors,  to  the  carelessness  of 
the  author,  to  ignorance,  or  to  the  prejudices  of  successive 
editors. 

2.  It  should  show  the  evolution  of  the  text  from  the  rough 
drafts,  through  the  various  editings  and  reprintings,  to  the 
final  form  adopted  by  the  author. 

3.  It  should  clear  up  all  difficulties  and  obscurities  of  the 
text:  vocabulary,  syntax,  allusions. 

4.  It  should  supply  a  literary  and  historical  commentary 
such  that  the  work,  with  its  sources  and  its  historical,  philo- 
sophical, controversial,  or  artistic  value,  may  be  entirely 
comprehensible  to  the  reader. 

5.  It  should  be  easy  to  handle  and  convenient,  arranged 
and  printed  in  such  a  way  as  to  afford  instruction  and 
pleasure,  with  notes  that  elucidate  and  do  not  submerge 
the  text. 

II.  DIFFERENT  STAGES  IN  THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN 
EDITION 

Let  us  suppose,  then,  that  you  have  decided  to  undertake 
the  task  of  editing  one  of  the  modern  French  works  that  it 
is  so  desirable  to  read  from  a  correct  and  fully  annotated 
text.  As  you  proceed  you  will  encounter  all  sorts  of  prob- 
lems and  difficulties,  up  to  the  moment  when  you  return  the 
last  press  proof  to  the  printer.  The  problems  or  difficulties, 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  39 

corresponding  to  the  successive  stages  in  your  work,  can  be 
grouped  under  the  following  heads: 

1.  Critical  work  for  establishing  and  cleaning  up  the  text. 

2.  Choice  of  a  text  to  reproduce  as  the  foundation  of  a 
critical  edition. 

3.  Establishment  and   arrangement   of   the   critical   ap- 
paratus. 

4.  Reproduction  of  the  text:  questions  of  orthography, 
punctuation,  etc. 

5.  Linguistic  and  grammatical  commentary. 

6.  Literary  commentary. 

7.  Practical  details  of  printing. 

CRITICAL   WORK   FOR   ESTABLISHING    AND    CLEANING    UP 
THE  TEXT 

You  can  readily  see  that  the  editor  of  a  modern  text  is 
quite  differently  situated  from  the  editor  of  a  Greek  or  a 
Latin  text.  The  latter  has  to  contend  with  a  certain  num- 
ber of  manuscripts — the  work  of  copyists,  with  which  the 
author  has  had  nothing  to  do;  his  task  is  to  study,  clas- 
sify, and  correct  these  manuscripts,  so  as,  by  means  of  them, 
to  find  as  nearly  as  possible  the  original  form  of  some 
work,  otherwise  unobtainable.  The  editor  of  a  modern  text, 
on  the  contrary,  has  to  deal  with  at  least  five  categories  of 
documents : 

i.  Manuscripts1  in  autograph;  often  several  successive 
autograph  variants  of  the  same  work. 

xThe  reading  of  the  manuscripts  of  modern  authors  (from  the  sixteenth  to 
the  nineteenth  century)  requires  methodical  preparation  and  training.  The 
student  will  find  a  good  starting-point  and  many  useful  references  in  the 
last  edition  (which  has  been  much  improved)  of  M.  Prou,  Manuel  de  palio- 
graphie.  He  should  next  practice  reading  the  various  handwritings  of  differ- 
ent epochs  in  the  excellent  facsimiles  of  the  manuscript  of  Pascal's  Penstes, 


40  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

2.  Manuscript  copies,  not  in  autograph,  which  may  have 
been  either  read  and  corrected  by  the  author  or  derived 
from  authentic  manuscripts  no  longer  extant. 

3.  Editions  issued  during  the  author's  lifetime,  whether 
published  or  supervised  by  him  or  printed  independently. 

4.  Editions  published  after  the  author's  death,  but  by 
persons,  chosen  by  him  or  qualified  for  the  task,  who  were 
in  possession  of  papers  that  today  are  scattered  or  lost. 

5.  Printings  by  publishers  which  reproduce  more  or  less 
exactly  some  authentic  edition  and  often  form  the  texts  read 
by  the  mass  of  the  public. 

It  is  from  among  these  that  you  must  discover  the  true, 
pure  text  of  the  work  you  are  editing.  You  will  see  later 
for  what  reasons  an  editor  chooses  one  special  text  as  the 
foundation  of  his  edition.  In  certain  cases  internal  criticism, 
conducted  according  to  the  strict  methods  of  classical  philol- 
ogy, is  an  indispensable  auxiliary  to  the  establishment  and 
cleaning  up  of  the  text. 

i.  Establishment  of  the  text.  There  are  cases  where  the 
application  of  genuine  philological  methods  of  comparison 
and  classification  of  the  various  readings1 — the  grouping  of 
texts  by  families  and  the  establishing  of  their  derivation, 

of  the  'exemplaire  de  Bordeaux'  of  Montaigne's  Essais  (both  published  by 
Hachette),  or  in  the  many  examples  in  A.  de  Bourmont,  Lecture  et  transcrip- 
tion des  vieilles  Ventures  (XVle,  XVII*,  XVIII*  siecles)  (1881),  in  J.  Kaulek 
and  E.  Plantet,  Recueil  de  fac-simile  pour  servir  a  I' etude  de  la  paleographie 
moderne  (XVII'  et  XVIII'  siecles)  (1889),  in  the  Musee  des  Archives  De- 
partementales  (1878),  or  in  the  collection  of  the  Autographic  Mirror. 

1  Is  it  necessary  to  mention  that  the  collating  of  the  various  readings  should 
be  accomplished  with  the  maximum  of  patience  and  care?  There  is  no  more 
tedious  undertaking,  nor  one  more  calculated  to  exhaust  the  power  of  con- 
centration. Yet,  though  not  all  variations  of  the  text  need  have  a  place  in 
the  commentary  of  an  edition,  they  should  always  be  completely  collated.  It 
is  wise  to  do  this  work  piecemeal,  and  to  have  other  people  check  it  up.  A 
convenient  method  is  to  make  a  faithful  copy  of  the  original  edition  (or  of 
some  other  that  in  particular  cases  may  seem  more  authentic) ;  to  leave  wide 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  41 

without  any  historical  or  literary  considerations — makes  it 
possible  to  distinguish  the  true  text,  which  should  be  the 
authority  in  every  critical  edition.  A  typical  example  of 
philological  methods  is  the  work  of  J.  Bedier1  on  the  text  of 
the  Entretien  de  Pascal  avec  M.  de  Sad ;  his  use  of  internal 
criticism  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

Statement  of  the  problem.  Of  what  value  is  the  text  of 
the  Entretien  that  is  reproduced  in  every  edition  of  Pascal  ? 
Is  it  a  compound  of  several  texts?  an  arbitrary  choice  of 
various  readings  ?  A  critical  text  must  be  established. 

Elements  of  the  problem.  Seven  texts  of  the  Entretien  are 
in  existence  (five  manuscript  copies  and  two  early  editions) 
no  one  of  which  has  been  directly  copied  from  any  of  the 
other  six.  The  connection  and  derivation  of  these  seven 
texts — known  as  G,  M,  J,  F,  B,  D,  T — must  be  established. 

Method  employed.  Collation  and  critical  comparison  of 
the  different  readings. 

Successive  results  obtained:2  a.  All  the  seven  texts  are 
derived  from  the  same  original  O,  which  is  already  faulty. 

b.  D,  G  constitute  one  family  =  V. 

c.  F,  J,  T,  B,  M  constitute  a  second  family,  which  is 
divided  into  subfamilies: 

(1)  F,  J,  T  constitute  a  small  group  =Z. 

(2)  Group  Z  is  related  to  B.   Therefore  B  forms  with 
Z  (  =  F,J,  T)  a  family  =  F. 

margins  and  plenty  of  space  at  the  top  and  the  bottom  of  the  pages,  and  to 
note  therein  the  readings  of  the  different  editions.  By  a  "  faithful  copy  "  must 
be  understood  the  minute  reproduction  of  words,  spelling,  typographical  pecu- 
liarities, punctuation,  paging,  etc.  Some  small  detail,  seeming  at  first  sight  in- 
significant, will  perhaps  enable  you  to  classify  an  edition  definitively.  Another 
piece  of  advice :  do  not  expect  hypotheses  and  conclusions  to  become  clearly 
distinguishable  until  you  have  finished  your  collation. 

1  Etudes  critiques,  pp.  3-18,  10-80.    Paris,  1903. 

2  Every  reading  that  has  influenced  these  results  is,  of  course,  found  in 
B&iier's  pages. 


I  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

(3)   F  is  related  to  M  through  a  copyist  X. 

d.  T  has  occasionally  made  use  of  D. 

Final  classification.    Expressed  by  this  figure : 

O 


F  J   T 

Conclusions.  Restoration  of  the  original  text  (archetype) 
O,  except  in  a  very  few  instances  where  passages  occur  in  X 
that  are  not  in  F,  and  vice  versa;  and  even  in  these  it  is 
possible,  in  ten  cases  out  of  twenty,  for  obvious  reasons  to 
make  a  choice.  "We  need  only  apply  obediently  the  rules 
that  our  classification  of  manuscripts  imposes  on  us,  to  see 
the  original  text  establish  itself  of  its  own  accord ;  the  mere 
weighing  and  comparing  of  the  various  groups  of  manu- 
scripts should  always  restore  the  genuine  readings,  and  cause 
the  false  to  eliminate  themselves  like  dross."1  After  this 
process  we  are  in  possession  of  the  best  possible  text  of  the 
Entretien  avec  M.  de  Sad. 

This,  then,  is  a  valuable  result  obtained  by  purely  internal 
methods  of  criticism.  Such  methods  may  be  applied  also  to 
what  I  call  cleaning  up  the  text. 

2.  Cleaning  up  the  text.  If  you  are  working  on  a  manu- 
script or  an  edition,  you  will  inevitably  find  yourselves  con- 
fronted at  times  with  a  word,  an  expression,  or  a  sentence 
that  either  has  no  sense  at  all  or  only  an  inadmissible  one. 

1  Etudes  critiques,  p.  48. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  43 

There  are  absurdities  in  the  current  texts  of  our  best  writers,1 
sometimes  even  in  the  original  texts.  These  must  be  cleaned 
up,  and  for  this  purpose  philological  methods  must  again  be 
used.  To  arouse  your  curiosity,  incite  ingenious  hypotheses, 
and  lead  you  to  reason  correctly,  I  know  no  better  guide 
than  the  Manuel  de  critique  verb  ale  appliquee  aux  textes 
latins,  by  L.  Havet.2  To  be  sure,  the  work  is  intended  for 
students  of  Latin  philology ;  but  as,  after  all,  the  psychology 
of  transcribers  and  the  mechanism  of  scholia,  interpolations, 
or  omissions  are  in  the  main  invariable,  we  may  well  seek 
Ha  vet's  advice  as  to  method. 

It  is  possible  to  cite  innumerable  instances  of  emenda- 
tions of  details3  both  ingenious  and  amusing.  I  must  content 
myself  with  a  few,  each  exemplifying  a  different  manner  of 
treatment. 

a.  In  1774  Meusnier  de  Querlon,  publishing  the  Journal 
de  voyage  of  Montaigne,  prints  the  following  sentence: 
"M.  de  Montaigne  disoit  s'agreer  fort  en  ce  detroit  .  .  .  et 
n'y  trouvions  incommodite  que  de  la  plus  espesse  et  insup- 
portable poussiere  .  .  .  Dix  heures  apres,  M.  de  Montaigne 
disoit  que  c'estoit  la  lune  de  ses  tretes:  il  est  vrai  que  sa 

1  In  all  the  derivative  editions  of  Hugo  may  be  found  the  following  lines : 
La  rose  epanouie  et  toute  grande  ouverte, 
Sortant  du  frais  bouton  comme  d'une  urne  ouverte, 
Charge  la  petitesse  exquise  de  sa  main  .  .  . 

A  recent  history  of  French  versification,  written  in  English  by  Kastner,  men- 
tions (p.  55)  without  wincing  this  "negligence"  in  one  of  Hugo's  most  perfect 
poems.  If  Kastner  did  not  care  to  tamper  with  a  text  of  Hugo,  he  might  at 
least  have  consulted  the  original  edition  of  1859:  the  word  there  is  verte 
(see  P.  Martinon,  "Sur  deux  textes  de  Hugo  et  de  Vigny,"  Revue  d'histoire 
litttraire,  1908,  pp.  129-130). 

24to.    Paris,  1911.    See  especially  §§  62-127. 

3  You  should  emend  in  this  way  only  with  extreme  caution  and  when  the 
emendation  is  imperatively  demanded.  Beware  of  those  "  reckless  infelicities  of 
correction"  that  are  the  hall  marks  of  those  who  are  always  ready  to  correct 
when  the  text  is  merely  obscure  or  too  difficult  for  them. 


44  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

coustume  est  .  .  .  de  faire  manger  1'avoine  a  ses  chevaus 
avant  partir  ail  matin  du  logis.  Nous  arrivames  .  .  .  de 
grand  nuict  a  Sterzinguen."  In  1889  the  Italian  editor 
D'Ancona  reproduces1  this  incomprehensible  text,  adding  in 
explanation  De  Querlon's  childish  note:  "Parce  que  cette 
poussiere  obscurcissant  le  jour,  ne  lui  laissait,  ainsi  que  la 
lune,  que  ce  qu'il  fallait  de  clarte  pour  se  conduire."  L.  Lau- 
trey,  publishing  a  new  edition  of  the  Voyage  in  i9o6,2  makes 
the  following  correction:  "Dix  heures  apres  (M.  de  Mon- 
taigne disoit  que  c'estoit  la  I'une  de  ses  tretes,  etc.)  nous 
arrivames  .  .  ."  Because  a  parenthesis  is  properly  placed 
and  an  apostrophe  restored,  the  sentence  recovers  its  meaning. 

b.  The  edition  of  Andre  Chenier  by  H.  de  Latouche 
(1819),  and  even  the  first  impression  of  Becq  de  Fouquieres's 
admirable  edition,  print  in  the  lambes  the  absurd  line 

Pauvres  chiens  et  moutons,  toute  la  bergerie  .  .  . , 

which  the  Hellenist  J.  Thurot,  inferring  a  corrupt  reading  of 
the  manuscript,  emends  in  this  convincing  way : 

Pdtres,  chiens  et  moutons,  .  .  . 

c.  In  L'Esprit  pur,  of  Alfred  de  Vigny,  every  edition,  in- 
cluding the  definitive  edition  by   Ratisbonne,  gives  these 
lines : 

L'ecrit  universel,  parfois  imperissable, 

Que  tu  graves  au  marbre,  ou  frames  sur  le  sable. 

A  nonsensical  text,  yet  one  that  Brunetiere  quotes  in  L'Evo- 
lution  de  la  poesie  lyrique,3  and  L.  Dorison  in  Alfred  de 
Vigny  poete  philosophe*  The  last  line  should  be  changed  to 

Que  tu  graves  au  marbre,  ou  traces  sur  le  sable.5 

*P.  96.  2Hachette,  Paris.  3Vol.  II,  p.  27.  4P.  204. 

°G.  Dalmeyda,  "Note  sur  un  vers  de  Vigny,"  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire, 

1910,  p.  619.    Dalmeyda  justly  remarks  that  "when  it  is  a  question  of  texts 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  45 

d.  In  the  Journal  d'un  poete,  again  by  Vigny,1  we  read : 
"Le  Capitaine  fit  connaissance  avec  un  passager.  Homme 
d'esprit,  il  lui  dit  .  .  ."    This  ridiculous  punctuation  should 
be  corrected  thus:  "Le  Capitaine  fit  connaissance  avec  un 
passager  homme  d'esprit.  II  lui  dit  .  .  ."2 

e.  At  other  times  the  correction  is  found  by  turning  to 
the  original  text,  which  has  been  corrupted  by  successive 
editors.    In  the  eighteenth  Lettre  philosophique  of  Voltaire, 
after  a  somewhat  free  translation  in  verse  of  Hamlet's  so- 
liloquy, the  Kehl  editors  and  their  successors  insert  a  transi- 
tional sentence  followed  by  a  literal  translation  in  prose; 
they  then  return  to  the  text  of  1734:  "Ne  croyez  pas  que 
j'aie  rendu  ici  PAnglais  mot  pour  mot;  malheur  aux  faiseurs 
de  traductions  litterales !  "    This  interpolation  is  utter  non- 
sense.   Lanson  reestablishes  the  sequence  of  ideas  by  sup- 
pressing the  editors'  addition.3 

/.  The  scrutiny  of  handwritings  will  often  suggest  an 
hypothesis  that  may  lead  to  some  useful  emendation.  In  the 
first  edition  and  in  all  subsequent  editions  of  La  Priere  by 
Lamartine  is  found  this  text,4  which  Lamartine  himself 
failed  to  notice: 

Ma  pensee,  embrassant  tes  attributs  divers, 
Partout  autour  de  toi  te  decouvre  et  t'adore, 
Se  contemple  soi-meme,  et  t'y  decouvre  encore. 

A.  Hauvette,  another  Hellenist,  observing  that  "in  Lamar- 
tine's  manuscripts  initial  s  is  elongated  and  nearly  straight" 
and  that  although  "Lamartine  usually  crosses  his  t  with  a 

that  have  been  read  and  reread,  habit  and  memory  exert  a  strangely  conserv- 
ative force."  Good  advice  about  method.  See  also  P.  Martino,  "Note  sur 
trois  corrections  au  texte  de  L'Esprit  pur"  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1919, 
p.  119.  He  tries  to  give  an  explanation  of  the  traditional  text,  and  insists  quite 
rightly  upon  the  necessity  for  extreme  prudence  in  corrections  of  this  kind. 

1P.  28.  2E.  Esteve,  in  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1914,  p.  451,  note. 

3 Edition  of  the  Lettres  philosophiques,  Vol.  II,  p.  82.  4Line  53. 


46  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

horizontal  stroke,  he  almost  as  invariably  omits  this  hori- 
zontal stroke  when  t  recurs  in  the  same  word  or  hemistich", 
corrects  the  passage  thus: 

Partout  autour  de  soi  te  decouvre  et  t'adore, 

which  correction  is  verified1  in  the  Correspondance? 

What  conclusions  as  to  method  can  be  reached  from  these 
examples  ? 

1.  Never  allow  an  incomprehensible,  ridiculous,  or  incon- 
sistent reading  to  remain  in  the  text  without  correction  or 
comment. 

2.  Look  for  the  possible  origin  of  a  corrupt  reading  in  the 
chirographical  peculiarities  of  the  manuscript;  in  an  error 
by  the  compositor  of  the  first  edition ;  in  the  editor's  negli- 
gence or  ignorance;  in  an  inadvertence  on  the  part  of  the 
author. 

3.  Make  a  conjecture  as  to  the  emendation.    Strive  to 
verify  your  conjecture  by  consulting  the  manuscripts,  by 

*  Vol.  n,  p.  89. 

zBulletin  de  la  societe  des  humanistes  franc.ais,  1901,  pp.  52-53.  Another 
example  is  found  in  Bossuet's  Sermon  sur  I'honneur  du  monde :  "  Get  homme 
s'est  enrichi  par  des  concussions  epouvantables,  et  il  vit  dans  une  avarice 
sordide;  tout  le  monde  le  meprise;  mais  il  tient  bonne  table  a  ses  mines  a  la 
ville  et  a  la  campagne," — an  unintelligible  text.  Lebarq  suggests " d  ses  ruines" 
("in  a  way  that  will  ruin  him"),  but  the  correction  is  poor  French  and  incon- 
sistent with  the  context.  Another  guesses  "tient  bonne  table,  a  ses  mines" 
("puts  on  airs"),  which  is  a  pointless,  unnatural  expression.  Rebelliau  sus- 
pects an  inversion  of  words  by  Bossuet's  hasty  pen  and  reads  "tient  bonne 
mine  a  ses  tables".  Here  the  plural  is  hardly  admissible.  Finally,  A.  Croiset, 
the  learned  Greek  scholar,  noticing  that  in  words  beginning  with  con  Bossuet 
sometimes  expresses  the  prefix  by  the  abbreviation  "c,  and  noticing  besides 
that  in  his  handwriting  u,  n,  v  are  indistinguishable,  believes  that  the  six 
downstrokes  and  ^5  that  compose  the  word  mines  should  be  read  Zvives,  or 
convives:  "tient  bonne  table  a  ses  convives  a  la  ville  et  a  la  campagne". 

See  other  examples  of  ingenious  emendations  in  Annales  romantiques,  July, 
1906,  pp.  248  and  377;  in  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1912,  pp.  400-410;  in 
the  edition  of  Vigny  published  by  F.  Baldensperger,  Wanda,  viii;  and  in  the 
entire  collection  of  the  Bulletin  de  la  societe  des  humanistes  franfais. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  47 

studying  the  different  readings,  or  by  considering  the  rest 
of  the  work. 

4.  Comment  upon  these  corrupt  or  doubtful  passages  in 
your  notes,  even  if  you  do  not  succeed  in  correcting  them 
satisfactorily. 

CHOICE  OF  A  TEXT  AS  FOUNDATION  OF  A  CRITICAL  EDITION* 

We  have  seen  that  Bedier  chose  from  among  seven  texts 
of  the  Entretien  avec  M.  de  Sad — five  manuscript  and  two 
printed.  When  Lanson  undertook  the  editing  of  the  Lettres 
philosophiques,  he  was  confronted  by  more  than  twenty- 
five  texts  printed  before  Voltaire's  death.  I  myself  found 
over  forty  in  editing  Candide.2  For  the  Profession  de  foi  du 
vicaire  Savoyard  Masson  was  obliged  to  study  at  least  seven 
different  manuscripts  and  more  than  twenty-five  printed 
editions. 

This,  then,  is  the  essential  question :  What  text  should  be 
selected  as  a  foundation  for  the  new  edition  ?  There  are  two 
aspects  of  the  matter  to  consider :  ( i )  Should  the  preference 
be  given  to  manuscripts  or  to  editions?  (2)  From  among 
the  editions  which  should  be  selected  ? 

i.  Should  preference  be  given  to  manuscripts  or  to  printed 

editions  ? 

Above  all,  resist  the  temptation  to  ascribe,  as  Bedier  says, 
"a  kind  of  mystical  superiority  to  every  manuscript  over 
every  printed  text"3  Unquestionably,  nothing  is  more  in- 
valuable than  a  manuscript  written  or  revised  by  the  author ; 
nothing  is  more  natural  than  the  tendency  to  give  this  abso- 

1  See  Langlois  and  Seignobos.  Introduction  aux  etudes  historiques,  pp.si-56. 

2  Voltaire,  Candide,  with  Introduction  and  Commentary.    Published  by 
A.  Morize  (Soriete  des  textes  franqais  modernes),  Paris,  1913. 

s£tudes  critiques,  p.  6. 


48  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

lutely  'authentic'  text  preference  over  all  others.  To  do  so, 
however,  is  in  certain  cases  an  error. 

An  excellent  instance  of  a  rigorous  critical  treatment  is 
Bedier's  study  on  Le  Texte  des  "Tragiques"  d'Agrippa  d'Au- 
bigne,  in  which  he  proves  that  at  times  an  edition  must  be 
preferred  to  the  best  manuscript.1 

Elements  of  the  problem,  a.  There  are  four  texts  of  Les 
Tragiques  contemporaneous  with  the  author : 

A,  edition  of  1616,  not  acknowledged  by  D'Aubigne,  though 
published  by  him. 

B,  enlarged  edition  without  name  of  place  or  date;  acknowl- 
edged by  D'Aubigne. 

T,  Tronchin  manuscript,  prepared  under  D'Aubigne's  direction 
and  corrected  by  his  hand. 

Z,,  London  manuscript,  corrected  by  D'Aubigne  and  forming 
part  of  his  widow's  inheritance. 

b.  These  four  texts,  all  authentic,  present  serious  diver- 
gencies. 

c.  Of  the  three  modern  editions  that  we  possess,2  one  re- 
produces A  with  some  corrections  or  additions  taken  arbi- 
trarily from  B;  the  other  two  reproduce  T  without  giving 
any  reasons  for  this  choice. 

Problem,    a.  To  classify  these  four  texts  chronologically. 

b.  To  discover  the  definitive  form,  to  be  used  as  the  basis 
of  a  modern  edition. 

First  phase:  elimination,  a.  Facts  observed:  The  text  of 
A  is  an  incomplete  and  imperfect  rough  draft.  On  the  other 
hand,  L  copies  all  T's  faults  without  exception  and  adds 
some  of  its  own.  Therefore  L  is  simply  a  derivative  of  T. 

b.  Conclusion:  Elimination  of  A  and  Z,;  T  and  B  remain. 

1  Etudes  critiques,  pp.  3-18. 

2Lalanne  edition  (1857) ;  Read  edition  (1872) ;  Reaume  and  De  Caussade 
edition  (1877). 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  49 

Second  phase:  classification.  What  is  the  relation  between 
T  and  B  ?  There  seem  to  be  only  two  possibilities :  T  is  a 
revision  previous  to  B ;  T  is  a  revision  subsequent  to  B.  A 
detailed  study  of  the  variants  shows,  however,  that  T  is  not 
the  source  of  B,  for  often  B,  in  agreement  with  A,  gives  a 
better  reading;  B  is  not  the  source  of  T,  for  often  T,  in 
agreement  with  A,  gives  a  better  reading. 

Third  phase:  critical  work.    See  line  190: 

A,  Vainqueur,  mats  helas/  c'est  vainer e  a  la  Cadmeenne. 
T,  Vainqueur,  comme  I'on  pent  vaincre  a  la  Cadmeenne. 

B,  Vainqueur,  comme  Von  pent  c'est  vaincre  a  la  Cadmeenne. 

The  correction  of  A  in  T  is  intelligible;  but  where  did  the 
ridiculous  line  in  B  come  from  ? 

A  fact  to  be  observed :  B  borrows  the  first  hemistich  from 
T1;  the  second,  from  A. 

Fourth  phase:  hypothesis.  After  1616  (A)  D'Aubigne 
revised  his  poem  only  once  ( T) .  At  the  time  his  revision  was 
printed  he  did  not  send  his  manuscript  copy  (71)  to  the 
printer;  he  sent  a  copy  of  A,  corrected  by  hand  above  the 
text,  in  the  margin,  or  on  interleaving-paper.  In  line  190, 
when  transferring  the  correction  "comme  I'on  peut"  from  T 
to  the  margin  of  A,  he  inadvertently  crossed  out  in  A  only 
"mais  helas!"  without  including  the  words  "c'est",  which  B 
scrupulously  reproduces. 

Corroboration  of  the  hypothesis,  a.  D'Aubigny  made 
similar  mistakes  in  lines  361  and  1216. 

b.  The  manuscript  bears  the  autograph  memorandum 
"donne  a  1'imprimeur  le  5  aoust".  Yet  the  condition  of  the 
manuscript  shows  that  it  never  went  to  a  printer.  Thus 
D'Aubigne,  after  writing  his  corrections  on  a  copy  of  A, 
merely  made  a  note  of  the  date  on  which  he  gave  his  new 
text  to  the  printer. 


50  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Fifth  phase:  verification  of  the  hypothesis,  a.  The  slight 
divergencies  between  T  and  B  can  be  logically  explained. 

b.  Any  serious  fault  in  A,  corrected  in  T,  fails  to  ap- 
pear in  B. 

c.  A  bad  error  in  French,  contained  in  T,  not  in  A,  dis- 
appears from  B  at  the  time  the  proofs  are  corrected. 

Conclusion,  a.  B  is  the  definitive  form  of  the  text  de- 
cided upon  by  the  author. 

b.  We  have  no  correct  edition  of  D'Aubigne.1 

From  this  study,  and  from  others  like  it,2  we  can  frame 
the  following  suggestion  as  to  method: 

When  the  choice  lies  between  an  impression  published  by 
the  author  himself  and  manuscripts,  even  if  in  autograph, 
that  precede  the  impression,  the  impression  is  generally  of 
greater  value  than  the  manuscripts. 

The  question  of  selecting  between  the  manuscript  and 
printed  editions  may  take  many  other  forms: 

a.  An  edition  has  perhaps  been  made  after  the  author's 
death,  with  the  help  of  manuscripts  no  longer  extant.    The 
manuscripts  that  we  possess  may  be  merely  preparatory  or 
imperfect  forms  (this  is  the  case  with  certain  of  Diderot's 
works).    Here  again  the  edition  is  more  trustworthy  than 
the  manuscript. 

b.  Suppose  that,  as  the  author  has  left  only  rough  drafts, 
the  editions  have  been  prepared  without  even  his  posthu- 
mous participation.    If  so,  we  must  turn  to  the  manuscript. 
A  typical  case  is  the  Pensees  of  Pascal.3 

c.  We  may  have  an  edition  issued  without  the  author's 
supervision,  as  well  as  his  manuscripts  in  a  more  or  less  final 

1  Except  of  the  first  book,  published  under  the  direction  of  B6dier,  Paris,  1896. 

2  For  instance,  the  study  of  the  Provinciates  of  Pascal.    See  Molinier  edi- 
tion (Penstes,  Preface),  and  Brunschvicg  edition,  Vol.  IV,  p.  101. 

3  Some  valuable  information  may  be  gained  by  seeing  how  the  first  editors 
did  their  work. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  51 

form.  Then  we  naturally  choose  the  manuscripts.  This  is 
the  situation  with  Andre  Chenier  (d.  1794),  whose  works 
were  first  published  by  Henri  de  Latouche  in  1819.  Chenier 's 
manuscripts,  accessible  today,  have  been  used  as  the  founda- 
tion for  the  editions  of  J.  M.  de  Heredia  and  of  P.  Dimoff. 

d.  Lastly,  the  real  text  is  found  in  the  manuscripts  if  the 
author,  during  an  era  of  absolute  power  or  of  persecution, 
has  been  forced  to  alter  or  soften  down  his  work  for  the 
printer,1  or  if  he  has  adapted  it  to  the  exigencies  of  the  stage.2 

From  these  instances,  then,  we  can  derive  a  second  sug- 
gestion as  to  method: 

When  dealing  with  manuscripts  and  printed  editions  we 
should  choose  the  text  that  brings  us  closest  to  the  author's 
definitive  and  complete  thought. 

2.  How  to  choose  from  the  printed  editions3 

The  choice  of  a  printed  edition  may  range  between  two 
extremes :  ( i )  the  princeps,  or  original  edition  ;  ( 2 )  the  last 
edition  issued  during  the  author's  lifetime. 

As  with  the  manuscripts,  absolute  and  inflexible  methods 
would  be  dangerous  here.  In  fact, 

a.  The  original  edition  may  be  only  an  imperfect  and 
unfinished  sketch ;  for  instance,  D'Aubigne's  Les  Tragiques. 

1For  example,  many  philosophical  writings  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

2  See  P.  and  V.  Glachant,  Essai  critique  sur  le  theatre  de  Victor  Hugo, 
pp.  223-259.    1902. 

3  Work  of  the  kind  treated  here  is  impossible  without  a  fairly  minute 
knowledge  of  the  technical  processes  of  bookmaking  during  the  epochs  in  ques- 
tion.   See  some  very  useful  suggestions  in  the  article  by  R.  B.  McKerrow, 
"Notes  on  Bibliographical  Evidence  for  Literary  Students  and  Editors,  etc.," 
Transactions  of  the  Bibliographical  Society,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  213-318  (London, 
1914).    For  instance,  the  author  shows  (p.  220)  in  what  ways  "bibliographical 
evidence  will  often  help  us  to  settle  such  questions  as  that  of  the  order  and 
relative  value  of  different  editions  of  a  book;  whether  certain  sections  of  a 


52  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

b.  The  last  edition  is  not  necessarily  superior  to  those 
that  precede. 

c.  An  intermediate  edition  may  represent  more  exactly 
than  either  of  these  the  author's  intention. 

Let  us  consider  some  examples : 

(1)  Voltaire,  Candide.    Between  the  text  of  Candide  of 
1761,  altered  in  certain  details  and  amplified,  and  the  orig- 
inal text  of  1759,  I  chose  that  of  1759,  because  it  was  the 
precise  form  in  which  Voltaire  hurled  this  bomb  into  the 
philosophical  arena  of  his  century. 

(2)  Rabelais,  Pantagruel.   Abel  Lefranc  chose  the  last 
edition  of  Pantagruel,  as  representing  the  work  perfected 
and  enlarged  as  Rabelais  desired.1 

(3)  Calvin,  Institution  chretienne.    In  the  case  of  the  In- 
stitution chretienne,  Abel  Lefranc  preferred  the  first  French 
text,  of  1541,  both  because  that  date  is  of  capital  impor- 
tance in  the  history  of  the  French  language  and  of  French 
thought  and  because  the  last  text  (1560)  published  during 
Calvin's  lifetime,  translated  from  the  Latin  edition  of  1559, 
abounds  in  errors  and  corrupt  readings.2 

book  were  originally  intended  to  form  part  of  it  or  were  added  afterwards; 
whether  a  later  edition  was  printed  from  an  earlier  one,  and  from  which; 
whether  it  was  printed  from  a  copy  that  had  been  corrected  in  manuscript, 
or  whether  such  corrections  as  it  contains  were  made  in  the  proof;  and  a 
number  of  other  problems  of  a  similar  kind,  which  may.  often  have  a  highly 
important  literary  bearing". 

1  Rabelais,  (Euvres  completes.    Published  by  A.  Lefranc  (Vol.  I,  1912; 
Vol.  II,  1913). 

2  Calvin,  Institution  de  la  religion  chretienne  (text  of  1541).   Published,  in 
2  vols.,  by  Lefranc,  Chatelain,  and  Pannier,  191 1. 

It  is  the  text  of  1560  that  is  reissued  by  Baum,  Cunitz,  and  Reuss  in 
Vol.  XXXI  of  the  Corpus  Re  format  or  um.  If  the  additions  in  the  Latin  edition 
of  1559  are  indeed  Calvin's  own,  its  translation,  the  French  text  of  1560,  is 
much  altered  after  Book  I,  chap.  vii.  See  Lanson,  in  Revue  historique,  1894, 
pp.  60-76,  and  J.  Demeure,  in  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1915,  pp.  402-407. 
The  text  of  1541  is  the  genuine  French  text,  and  the  only  Calvin  text  pub- 
lished by  Calvin. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  53 

(4)  Lamartine,  Meditations.   The  text  of  the  Meditations 
commonly  on  sale  includes,  besides  the  1820  collection,  eleven 
poems  subsequent  to  1830;  the  discourse  Des  destinies  de  la 
poesie,  which  dates  from  1834;   and  the  Commentaires  in 
prose,  a  sort  of  inexact  and  belated  confessions.  Now,  the 
Meditations  has  special  literary  significance  as  the  expres- 
sion of  the  souls  of  1820  who  hailed  in  Lamartine  their 
eagerly  awaited  poet.    Literary  history  needed  a  good  edi- 
tion, which  should  reproduce  not  the  composite  publication 
of  1849  but  the  important  little  book  of  1820;  this  was  sup- 
plied by  Lanson.1 

(5)  Ronsard,  Poesies.   Until  1914  we  had  only  two  mod- 
ern editions  of  Ronsard:  that  of  Blanchemain,2  whose  text 
is  a  spurious  mixture  of  readings  picked  up  here  and  there 
and  of  the  editor's  inventions ;  and  that  of  Marty-Laveaux,3 
which  reproduces  the  text  of  1584  as  it  was  arranged  by  an 
older  and  less  spirited  Ronsard,  often  very  different  from  the 
Ronsard  of  the  early  days  of  the  Pleiade.    Laumonier4  has 
undertaken  to  reissue  the  first  edition  of  each  collection, 
adding  in  footnotes  the  later  emendations  and  changes.  This 
makes  it  possible  for  us  to  read  the  poems  in  all  their  fresh- 
ness, to  follow  Ronsard's  development,  and  to  get  to  the 
heart  of  an  epoch  when  "the  art  of  expressing  a  thought  was 
in  the  making,  and  was  steadily  advancing". 

These  few  examples  show : 

1 i )  That  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  rule,  or  even  a  general 
suggestion,  as  to  the  choice  of  a  text  as  the  foundation  for 
an  edition. 

(2)  That  in  a  great  number  of  cases  it  is  well  to  choose  the 
first  form  of  an  important  work. 

1  In  2  vols  (8vo)  (Collection  des  grands  ecrivains,  2e  Serie) .    Hachette,  1915. 

21857-1867.  81887-1893. 

4Societe  des  textes  franqais  modernes.    Hachette,  1914  et  seq. 


54  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

(3)  That,  after  all,  the  editor's  endeavor  should  be  to 
select  and  reproduce  the  text  that  has  the  greatest  historical 
significance. 

Selection,  however,  is  not  always  easy,  even  after  deciding 
to  rely  on  the  first  edition.  Several  editions  differing  consid- 
erably from  one  another  may  bear  the  same  date.  Among 
these  the  original  must  be  found.  This  is  the  case  with  Rous- 
seau's Discours  sur  Vinegalite  and  Emile ;  Voltaire's  Lettres 
philosophiques  and  Candide;  several  of  Pascal's  Provin- 
ciates; and  many  other  works. 

Once  more,  it  is  naturally  impracticable  to  lay  down  rules 
for  discovering  this  true  original  text.  Each  editor  must 
find  the  specific  method  that  will  accomplish  his  purpose. 
Here  are  two  examples  that  illustrate  different  processes : 

(i)  Voltaire,  Lettres  philosophiques.  Lanson  decided  to 
publish  the  text  of  the  Lettres  philosophiques  of  1734.  But 
he  found  two  editions  of  1734,  and,  curiously  enough,  both 
are  authentic. 

(a)  The   Basle   edition    (London,    1734),   brought  out 
through  the  efforts  of  Thieriot,  a  friend  of  Voltaire. 

(b)  The  Amsterdam  edition  (Rouen,  1734),  brought  out 
by  the  publisher  Jore. 

Both  texts  in  the  first  place  came  from  Voltaire,  who  sent 
a  copy  to  Thieriot  and  a  copy  to  Jore ;  corrections  to  Thieriot 
and  corrections  to  Jore.  How  is  it  possible  to  choose  ?  Lan- 
son decides  by  means  of  external  criticism,  both  historical 
and  psychological. 

(a)  Voltaire  himself  corrected  Jore's  proofs;  he  did  not 
see  Thieriot's  and  repeatedly  complained  of  Thieriot's  negli- 
gence (evidence  furnished  by  the  Correspondence). 

(b)  Coincident  with  Thieriot's  edition  an  English  trans- 
lation was  being  made  in  London  from  the  copy  sent  by  Vol- 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  55 

taire.  Now  the  English  translation  agrees  often  with  the 
edition  of  Jore,  not  with  the  edition  of  Thieriot,  whose 
"friendly  emendations"  are  thus  ruled  out. 

(c)  Finally,  "the  Lettres  philosophiques  is  interesting 
through  its  role  in  the  history  of  ideas.  .  .  .  The  work  is  a 
polemic.  Therefore,  the  edition  must  be  selected  that  gave 
offense  to  the  authorities,  and  was  censored  and  condemned. '' 
This  is  Jore's  edition.1 

(2)  Voltaire,  Candide.  In  the  case  of  Candide  the  text  of 
1759  seemed  to  me  the  most  interesting  historically.  But  I 
had  before  me  thirteen  editions  dated  1759;  which  was  the 
correct  one  ?  This  time  I  was  guided  by  bibliographical  and 
critical  considerations.  Through  an  examination  of  typo- 
graphical ornaments  and  of  other  details  I  recognized  the 
edition  that  came  from  Cramer's  press  (the  press  usually 
employed  by  Voltaire  at  that  period) ;  through  a  minute 
study  of  a  curious  copy2 1  discovered  in  several  places  a  text 
that  antedates  the  original  edition.3 

1  Lettres  philosophiques  (ed.  Lanson),  Vol.  I,  Introduction,  pp.  viii-xii. 
This  piece  of  criticism  demonstrates   (i)    the  importance  of  the  testimony 
furnished  by  correspondence;   (2)   the  importance  of  translations   (compare 
the  case  of  the  Institution  chretienne)  ;  (3)  the  importance  of  judiciary  pro- 
ceedings, censorship,  etc.  for  every  book  that  influences  the  history  of  ideas. 

2  Introduction  critique,  pp.  Ixxxi-lxxxvi. 

3  A  study  of  the  various  recent  editions  mentioned  as  examples  draws 
attention  to  two  conditions  of  frequent  recurrence : 

1.  It  may  happen  that  although  an  author  has  revised  and  improved  his 
text,  we  are  not  justified  in  supposing  that  the  minor  changes  are  by  him. 
They  may  have  been  made  by  the  printer  and  overlooked  by  the  author. 

2.  It  may  happen  that  an  author,  wishing  to  reprint  some  work,  is  satis- 
fied to  take  a  worthless  copy  of  a  former  unauthorized  edition,  to  make  his 
additions  or  changes  in  this,  and  to  pass  over  unnoticed  the  many  little  mis- 
takes or  peculiarities  of  the  text  he  is  using.    Thus  the  new  edition  introduces 
fresh  faults  into  the  very  text  that  the  author  desires  to  perfect. 


56  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

ESTABLISHMENT  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  CRITICAL 
APPARATUS 

You  have  now  collated  all  the  texts,  manuscript  or  printed, 
of  the  work  that  you  intend  to  edit.  You  have  chosen  a  text 
as  the  foundation  for  your  work,  and  you  have  a  perfect 
copy  of  it.  What  are  you  going  to  do  with  this  material  ? 

The  next  step  is  to  establish  the  critical  apparatus  of  your 
edition ;  that  is  to  say,  to  arrange  alongside  your  fundamen- 
tal text  all  the  readings  that  will  help  the  reader  to  follow 
the  history  and  the  development  of  the  text. 

1.  Observe  that  I  say  "all  the  readings  that  will  help  the 
reader" — not  simply  "all  the  readings".    Even  though  you 
are  obliged  in  your  preparatory  work  to  study  and  to  collate 
every  divergent  form  of  the  text,  it  would  be  a  childish  dis- 
play to  crowd  into  your  "adnotatio  critica"  all  the  readings 
that  you  have  accumulated  in  your  notes.    For  the  really  in- 
teresting modifications  would  disappear,  submerged  by  this 
deluge  of  useless  detail.  Therefore  in  your  introduction  rid 
yourself  of  the  editions  that  have  no  bearing  on  the  history 
of  the  text.  Refer  to  them,  describe  them — and  leave  them.1 

2.  You  should  follow  some  plan  that  will  make  your  criti- 
cal apparatus  clear  and  readable.    Do  not  force  the  reader 
to  turn  back  to  the  introduction  or  to  the  list  of  symbols  to 
find  out  what  it  is  all  about.    In  designating  the  different 
editions,  avoid  letters,  such  as  the  Greek  alphabet,  that  have 
no  significance.   Use  either  the  last  two  figures  in  the  date 
of  the  edition,  or  a  letter  that  recalls  its  essential  character. 
Your  reader  will  remember  without  difficulty  that  59  stands 
for  the  edition  of  1759;   K,  the  Kehl  edition;   L  and  T, 
the  London  and  Tronchin  manuscripts  respectively;    75", 

1See  how  Lanson  deals  with  them  in  Lettres  philosophiques,  Introduction, 
pp.  xiii-xiv. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  57 

Volume  VIII  of  the  1775  edition.    Symbols  of  this  kind  ex- 
plain themselves. 

3.  When  the  same  reading  is  found  in  successive  editions 
derived  one  from  another,  do  not  encumber  your  notes  by 
enumerating  each  one.    Do  not  write  out  1552,  1553,  1567, 
1572,  but  simply  52-72. 

4.  Where  should  you  put  your  critical  apparatus?    This 
depends  chiefly  upon  its  size  and  upon  the  importance  that 
you  wish  to  attach  to  it.    I  am  opposed  to  arranging  the 
various  readings  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  or  even  at 
the  end  of  the  chapter,  book,  or  canto.    By  this  system  the 
reader  is  given  an  irksome  task,  and  the  readings,  massed 
together  far  from  the  text  they  are  supposed  to  elucidate, 
lose  in  life  and  interest.    In  most  cases  it  will  be  quite  con- 
venient to  put  the  critical  apparatus  on  each  page,  between 
the  text  and  the  historical  or  exegetical  notes.    The  general 
effect  will  be  much  clearer  if  you  use  different  type  for  these 
three  sections. 

In  certain  extreme  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  resort  to 
special  processes.  Masson,  when  editing  the  Profession  de 
foi  du  vicaire  Savoyard,  wished  ( i )  to  give  us  the  text  of  the 
original  edition  and  (2)  at  the  same  time  to  enable  us  to 
trace,  through  the  very  important  manuscripts,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  work,  thought,  and  art  of  Rousseau.  Therefore 
he  decided  to  arrange  his  text  and  his  readings  on  two  pages: 

The  left-hand  page,  mainly  critical,  gives  the  versions  of  the  four 
manuscripts,  and  shows  the  progress  of  Rousseau's  work,  from  such 
beginnings  as  we  can  reach,  up  to  its  completion  (the  text  of  each 
manuscript  is  distinguished  by  a  different  type)  ;  the  right-hand 
page,  mainly  historical,  reproduces  the  original  edition  (with  the 
readings  of  subsequent  editions),  and  points  out  the  sources  of 
Rousseau.1 

1  Introduction,  p.  xcviii. 


58  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

This  method,  although  admirable  in  this  instance  and  doubt- 
less applicable  to  certain  other  works,  such  as  Les  Martyrs 
of  Chateaubriand  or  La  Tentation  de  Saint  Antoine  of  Flau- 
bert, would,  however,  have  no  advantage  for  most  of  the 
works  that  we  wish  to  see  well  edited. 

REPRODUCTION  OF  THE  TEXT :  QUESTIONS  OF  ORTHOGRAPHY 
AND  PUNCTUATION1 

To  reproduce  a  text  is  more  easily  said  than  done.  It  is  a 
delicate  task  with  even  a  printed  text,  and  often  impossible 
with  manuscripts  or  copies.  In  the  sixteenth  century  "  spell- 
ing" can  hardly  be  said  to  have  existed.  In  the  seventeenth 
century,  though  an  effort  was  made  to  regulate  it,  few  con- 
formed to  the  regulations.2  In  the  eighteenth  century  all 
was  chaotic ;  many  writers  took  no  interest  in  the  question ; 
Voltaire  left  his  printers  free  to  "regner  sur  ce  petit  peuple- 
la".  Besides,  a  number  of  important  texts  were  printed  in 
foreign  countries  by  foreign  typographers.  With  manuscripts 
the  uncertainty  is  even  greater :  at  some  periods  no  distinc- 
tion was  made  between  writing  *  and  ;,  or  between  u  and  v, 
etc.;  famous  authors,  such  as  Montesquieu,  have  strange 
orthographical  frailties;3  M™e  de  Tencin's  letters  would  be 

1See  L.  Cledat,  "Sur  I'etablissement  du  texte  de  Boileau,"  Revue  de  philo- 
logie  franfaise,  Vol.  I  (1917),  pp.  i  ff.  (in  particular,  pp.  9-10,  on  the  repro- 
duction of  orthography). 

2See  F.  Brunot,  Histoire  de  la  langue  franfaise,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  83-167. 

3 Here  is  a  specimen  of  Mrae  de  la  Fayette's  spelling  and  punctuation:  "U 
ny  a  un  jour  que  Ion  ne  parle  icy  de  vous  escrire  toutes  les  soirees  se  finissent 
en  disant  mon  dieu  escriuont  done  a  ce  pauure  mr  de  Pomponne  mandons  luy 
combien  nous  nous  ennuyons  de  ne  lauoir  plus  et  lenuie  que  nous  auons  quil 
reuienne  cela  ce  dit  touts  les  soirs  .  .  ." 

Here  is  a  quotation  from  Bossuet : 

"  Pardonnez  nous  si  nous  entandonssi  mal  votsre  grandeurs  etayezagreable- 
ces  iddees  grossieres  que  nous  nousformons  denotre  felicite  durant  lexiletla 
captiuite  de  cesteuie  .  .  ."  (quoted  by  Brunot,  Histoire  de  la  langue  franfaise, 
Vol.  IV,  pp.  159  and  166). 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  59 

a  disgrace  to  a  little  girl  eight  years  old ;  Hugo  himself  and 
Lamartine1  overlooked  many  inadvertencies. 

What  are  you  going  to  do  in  reproducing  your  text?  On 
the  plea  of  scientific  precision,  shall  you  thrust  upon  your 
reader  a  text  that  is  nearly  indecipherable?  Or,  on  the 
ground  of  its  illegibility,  shall  you  treat  it  as  you  please — 
correcting,  unifying,  modernizing?  Here  again  you  must 
discriminate  and  give  proof  of  judgment  and  fine  critical 
sense. 

1 .  It  is  useless  to  preserve  anything  that  is  obviously  some 
stupid  mistake  of  the  printer  or  an  oversight  on  the  part  of 
the  author.    Nevertheless,  point  out  the  slip  in  your  critical 
apparatus,  for  it  may  serve  to  identify  the  edition. 

2 .  If  you  are  the  first  to  reedit  a  very  rare  text,  reproduce 
the  original  with  scrupulous  fidelity  (with  the  above  reserva- 
tion).   However,  the  addition  of  a  few  capitals,  periods,  or 
colons,  while  not  affecting  the  exactness  of  the  reproduction, 
will  help  greatly  in  the  reading  of  it.    Do  not  fail  to  specify 
in  your  introduction  what  decisions  you  have  made. 

3.  Certain  authors  have  idiosyncrasies  of  spelling  that 
they  cling  to.  In  this  case  do  not  interfere  with  them ;  on  the 
contrary,  make  them  very  plain.    Rousseau  chose  to  write 
degre  for  degre;  religion  for  religion,  etc.    Masson2  gives  a 
brief  list  of  these  orthographical  preferences.3    Likewise, 
Voltaire  decided  after  1 734  to  print  frangais,  anglais,  instead 
of  frangois,  anglois,  etc.   This  interesting  fact  in  the  history 
of  the  language  should  be  carefully  noted. 

1  See  Des  Cognets,  "  Etude  sur  les  manuscrits  de  Lamartine,"  in  Melanges 
d'histoire  litteraire  (Bibliotheque  de  1'Universite  de  Paris) ,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  109- 
197;  P.  V.  Glachant,  Essai  critique  sur  le  theatre  de  Victor  Hugo  (1902), 
p.  55,  note  i. 

2  Profession  de  foi,  p.  583. 

3  See,  for  some  valuable  suggestions  as  to  method,  pages  cvii-cviii  of  the 
introduction. 


6o  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

4.  You  will  find  texts,  especially  in  manuscript,  that  use 
abbreviations  without  any  coherent  system.    In  the  greater 
number  of  cases  there  is  no  objection  to  adopting  throughout 
either  M.  or  Monsieur,  &  or  et,  etc.,  even  when  the  original 
vacillates  between  the  two  forms. 

5.  In  editions  that  are  intended  not  for  savants  but  for 
the  general  public  or  for  schools  and  colleges,  to  modernize 
the  spelling,  whether  wholly  or  in  part,  is  quite  admissible; 
but  these  are  not  cases  that  involve  critical  methods. 

6.  Punctuation  is  a  difficult  question  to  handle.    Only  by 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  its  history,  and  especially  of  the 
habits  of  your  author,  will  you  reach  a  legitimate  solution. 
Frequently  the  punctuation  of  the  original  texts  is  incoher- 
ent, representing  only  the  whim  of  the  printer;  it  is  for  you, 
in  such  instances,  to  make  the  text  readable,  while  departing 
as  little  as  possible  from  the  original.     When  the  author 
himself   has   determined   the   punctuation,   leave   it   alone. 
Again,  if  faulty  punctuation  alters  the  idea  or  confuses  the 
sense,  arrange  it  to  fit  the  meaning.1    Lastly,  remember  that 
even  at  a  comparatively  recent  date  punctuation  marks  did 
not  have  the  same  value  that  they  have  today.2 

The  question  is  of  particular  importance  in  editing  poetry, 
as  here  it  is  closely  related  to  rhythm.  The  punctuation  of 

1Here  is  an  emendation  by  J.  M.  de  Heredia  in  his  edition  of  the  Buco- 
liques  of  Chenier  (p.  80).  Instead  of 

Les  fleurs  ne  sont  plus  tout;  le  verger  vient  d'eclore, 
he  reads, 

Les  fleurs  ne  sont  plus;  tout  le  verger  vient  d'eclore. 

2  See  D.  Mornet,  L'Alexandrin  fran^ais  dans  la  deuxieme  moitie  du  XVII Ie 
siecle,  pp.  38-42.  He  points  out  that  printers  and  authors  commonly  used 
the  semicolon  (;)  as  we  use  the  comma  (,).  Thus  Rousseau  punctuates: 
"Soyez-en  sure,  aimable  Claire;  je  ne  m'interesse  pas  moins  que  vous  au  sort 
de  ce  couple  infortune;  non  par  un  sentiment  de  commiseration  qui  peut 
n'etre  qu'une  faiblesse;  mais  par  la  consideration  de  la  justice  .  .  ."  (Nou- 
velle  Heloise,  Vol.  II,  p.  2;  text  of  the  two  principal  editions). 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION 


61 


writers  such  as  Chenier,  Hugo,  Vigny,  or  Leconte  de  Lisle  is 
all-important,  although  their  editors  have  too  often  failed  to 
recognize  this  fact.  Compare  these  two  texts  taken  from 
Chenier 's  Le  Jeune  Malade.  The  first  is  that  of  Latouche1 
and  of  Becq  de  Fouquieres2;  the  second  is  reproduced  by 
Dimoff  from  the  autograph  manuscript.  Is  it  not  evident 
how  different  the  comment  on  the  rhythm  and  expression 
would  be  for  each  version  ? 3 


Ma  mere,  adieu;  je  meurs,  et  tu 

n'as  plus  de  fils. 
Non,  tu  n'as  plus  de  fils,  ma  mere 

bien-aimee. 
Je  te  perds.  Une  plaie  ardente,  en- 

venimee, 
Me  ronge ;  avec  effort  je  respire, 

et  je  crois 
Chaque  fois  respirer  pour  la  der- 

niere  fois. 
Je  ne  parlerai  pas.    Adieu ;  ce  lit 

me  blesse, 
Ce  tapis  qui  me  couvre  accable  ma 

faiblesse ; 
Tout  me  pese  et  me  lasse.   Aide- 

moi,  je  me  meurs. 
Tourne-moi  sur  le  flanc.  Ah!  j 'ex- 
pire !    0  douleurs ! 


Ma  mere,  adieu.  Je  meurs ;  et  tu 

n'as  plus  de  fils. 
Non,  tu  n'as  plus  de  fils.   Ma  mere 

bien-aimee, 
Je  te  perds.  Une  plaie  ardente,  en- 

venimee, 
Me  ronge.   Avec  effort  je  respire ; 

et  je  crois 
Chaque  fois  respirer  pour  la  der- 

niere  fois. 
Je  ne  parlerai  pas.    Adieu.   Ce  lit 

me  blesse. 
Ce  tapis  qui  me  couvre  accable  ma 

faiblesse. 
Tout  me  pese ;  et  me  lasse.  Aide- 

moi.   Je  me  meurs. 
Tourne-moi  sur  le  flanc.   Ah  j 'ex- 
pire.   0  douleurs! 


The  subjects  of  orthography  and  punctuation,  in  short, 
are  infinitely  complicated.  They  require  art,  tact,  taste,  on 
your  part.  Here  again  the  best  method  is,  after  studying 


2i862. 

3  This  example  is  interesting  in  showing  that  even  the  most  impressionistic 
and  subjective  criticism  implies  an  initial  study  of  literary  history  and  of  its 
precise  methods;  that  is,  unless  you  are  disposed  to  be  as  enthusiastic  over 
Latouche's  punctuation  as  over  Chenier's  rhythms. 


62  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

thoroughly  the  individual  case,  to  decide  what  liberties  you 
may  allow  yourself  so  as  to  present  the  text  in  the  form  de- 
sired by  its  author,  without  obliging  your  reader  to  decipher 
hieroglyphics  or  to  wrestle  with  absurdities. 


LINGUISTIC  AND  GRAMMATICAL  COMMENTARY 

The  linguistic  and  grammatical  commentary  aims  at  ex- 
plaining every  difficulty  that  your  text  may  present  in  vocab- 
ulary, grammar,  syntax,  and  versification.  Obviously,  the 
earlier  the  text  the  more  necessary  it  becomes.  What  most 
of  the  work  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  and 
many  passages  previous  to  1650  really  need  is  translation. 

As  soon  as  you  have  acquired  material  for  the  commen- 
tary, the  questions  again  arise :  How  must  you  choose  ?  How 
shall  you  arrange  it? 

1.  In  choosing,  the  following  is  a  safe  principle:   Keep 
in  your  notes  only  such  data  as  to  vocabulary  or  language 
as  are  indispensable  for  understanding  the  text.   The  rest  is 
padding  and  ostentation.    If  you  chance  upon  a  curious  or 
interesting  word,  do  not  take  the  occasion  to  write  its  com- 
plete history ;  examples  filched  from  dictionaries  and  crowded 
into  the  same  page  as  the  text  make  your  work  tedious  and 
obscure.    Avoid  anything  that  sounds  like  a  philological  dis- 
sertation.   Discuss  only  the  special  points  that  need  clarify- 
ing.   Reject  all  but  the  necessary  remarks. 

2 .  The  arrangement  will  depend  entirely  on  the  scope  and 
purpose  of  the  commentary;  that  is  to  say,  on  the  kind  of 
work  you  are  editing.    There  are  difficulties  in  arranging  the 
commentary  either  as  footnotes  or  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 
If  as  footnotes,  the  notes  will  be  overloaded,  and,  in  trying 
to  lighten  them,  serviceable  and  sometimes  necessary  mate- 
rial will  be  discarded;  if  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  or  of 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  63 

separate  parts  of  the  volume,  your  comments  will  be  of  far 
less  benefit  to  the  reader.   Here  are  a  few  suggestions : 

a.  When  your  commentary  is  not  bulky,  insert  it  below 
the  text  with  the  other  notes. 

b.  When  it  is  bulky,  a  good  plan  may  be  to  divide  it  into 
two  parts :  one  part,  for  observations  on  grammar  or  syntax, 
to  be  arranged  as  footnotes ;  the  other,  for  remarks  on  vocab- 
ulary, in  a  glossary  at  the  end  of  the  volume.   Asterisks 
in  the  text  would  then  refer  the  reader  to  the  glossary. 

c.  In  the  case  of  very  important  grammatical  and  syn- 
tactic commentary,  you  might  index  every  remark  of  the  kind 
made  in  the  notes,  supplying  in  this  way  the  elements  and 
the  plan  of  a  study  on  the  language  of  your  author.1 

At  all  events,  bear  in  mind  that  you  are  not  writing  a 
philological  contribution  to  the  history  of  the  language, 
but  are  elucidating  a  difficult  text.  Everything  that  does 
not  directly  further  your  aim  must  be  sacrificed  without 
compunction. 

LITERARY  COMMENTARY 

The  literary  commentary  should  include  all  remarks  and 
notes,  whether  historical,  biographical,  philosophical,  or 
aesthetic,  all  discussions  on  sources  or  influences,  all  biblio- 
graphic or  iconographic  information,  necessary  for  under- 
standing the  text. 

During  the  preparatory  work  you  will  accumulate  an 
enormous  and  somewhat  confused  mass  of  documents  of 
every  kind  and  origin.  Resist  the  temptation  to  insert  them 
all  in  your  notes.  They  have  helped  you,  but  they  are  not 
all  indispensable  to  your  reader.  Therefore,  here  again,  to 
know  how  to  choose  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 

xThe  editions  of  Moliere  or  of  Racine  in  the  Collection  des  grands  ecri- 
vains  de  la  France  furnish  admirable  examples. 


64  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

But  how  should  you  choose  ?  The  principle  of  choice  has, 
I  think,  been  formulated  perfectly  by  Lanson:  "To  know 
how  to  retain  from  your  exhaustive  researches  the  material 
that  is  called  for  by  the  nature  of  the  text." 

Lanson  means  that  you  should  begin  by  deciding  (this 
will  prove  your  perspicacity  and  tact  as  an  editor)  what 
constitutes  the  special  interest  of  your  text — what  gives  it 
importance  in  the  author's  life,  or  in  the  history  of  ideas  or 
of  some  particular  literary  theory  or  genre.  Pick  out  from 
your  notes  those  that  are  related  to  this  aspect  of  the  work 
and  that  help  to  explain  it.  Leave  the  others,  or  take  only 
the  most  important.  For  instance, 

1.  Saint-Simon's  Memoir es  requires,  above  all,  historical 
commentary :  information  about  the  people  and  events  men- 
tioned; explanation  of  obscure  allusions;  correction  of  er- 
rors; completion  of  fragmentary  anecdotes.    This  has  been 
supplied  in  Boislisle's  large  edition.1 

2.  Works  that  are  more  or  less  autobiographical  should 
on  every  point  be  criticized,  verified,  and  explained,  in  notes 
that  weigh  them  against  accurate  critical  biographies  of  their 
authors.    We  are  still  waiting  for  such  an  edition  of  Rous- 
seau's Confessions. 

3.  Philosophical,  theological,  and  polemical  works  should 
have  their  environment  restored.    Your  notes  should  bring 
out  the  relation  of  a  work  to  previous  or  contemporary  sys- 
tems and  doctrines;  the  writer's  standing;   the  current  of 
ideas  he  followed  or  tried  to  stem.    Under  this  heading  come 
the  Pensees  of  Pascal,  the  Sermons  of  Bossuet,  the  Emile  of 
Rousseau,  the  Genie  du  christianisme  of  Chateaubriand.  For 
many  of  these  the  commentary  should  be  especially  on  the 
sources.2 

1  Collection  des  grands  ecrivains.    Hachette. 

-  The  study  of  sources  will  be  treated  in  a  special  chapter. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  65 

4.  Other  works,  on  the  contrary,  have  chiefly  an  aesthetic 
interest.  The  notes  should,  therefore,  in  each  case  lay  stress 
upon  the  artist's  effort  to  reach  or  to  approach  perfection; 
upon  the  means  he  employs ;  upon  the  degree  of  his  success 
or  failure.  It  happens  frequently  that  such  literary  com- 
mentary is  inseparable  from  the  study  of  the  various  read- 
ings and  successive  transformations  of  the  text.  The  novels 
of  Flaubert,  and  the  poems  of  Chenier  or  of  Leconte  de 
Lisle  and  many  of  Lamartine's  or  Hugo's,  are  well  suited  to 
criticism  of  this  kind. 

Is  it  necessary  to  say  that  there  are  no  '  air-tight  partitions ' 
between  these  compartments?  The  question  is,  primarily, 
to  use  intelligence  in  deciding  what  direction  your  com- 
mentary should  pursue;  what  aspect  you  should  empha- 
size; how  much  space  you  should  devote  to  each  category 
of  notes. 

Lastly,  by  an  attentive  study  of  several  good  editions  you 
will  best  serve  your  apprenticeship. 

PRACTICAL  DETAILS  OF  PRINTING 

I  sum  up  here  these  suggestions  of  an  entirely  practical 
nature,  intended  not  to  exhaust  the  subject  but  to  indicate 
how  such  details  as  are  involved  in  the  final  work  on  an  edi- 
tion may  judiciously  be  handled. 

1.  Whenever  possible  put  all  the  annotation,  critical  or 
historical,  on  the  same  page  as  the  text.    This  is  its  proper 
place,  where  it  is  most  effective. 

2.  Distinguish  with  special  type  the  different  sections  of 
the  page :  text,  various  readings,  notes. 

3.  Use  simple,  intelligible  symbols. 

4.  When  you  have  selected  a  system  of  symbols,  adhere 
consistently  to  it  from  the  beginning  of  the  book  to  the  end. 


66  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

5.  Do  not  fail  to  equip  your  edition  with  the  necessary 
indexes  and  tables  of  contents:  "Livre  sans  index,  livre  a 
peu  pres  perdu"  has  been  justly  said. 

6.  Do  your  utmost  to  insure  the  typographical  correctness 
of  your  text,  of  the  various  readings,  and  of  the  notes. 

EXAMPLES  OF  EDITIONS  TO  STUDY 

In  order  to  become  acquainted  with  applications  of  the 
various  methods,  you  will  find  nothing  of  greater  value  than 
to  spend  some  hours  in  familiarizing  yourself  with  certain 
recent  editions.  I  subjoin  a  list,  which  may  be  altered  or 
enlarged  at  your  pleasure. 

1.  In  the  Collection  des  grands  ecrivains  de  la  France, 
published  by  Hachette,  study  preferably  Moliere  (Despois, 
Mesnard,  and  Desfeuilles) ;  La  Bruyere  (Servois) ;  Racine 
(Mesnard) ;  Pascal  (Brunschvicg) ;  Saint-Simon  (Boislisle). 

2.  The  Societe  des  textes  francais  modernes  has  published, 
beginning  in  1905,  a  series  of  critical  and  annotated  editions, 
among  which  the  most  instructive  as  regards  method  seem 
to  me  to  be  the  following : 

VOLTAIRE.    Lettres  philosophiques  (Lanson).    1909. 

Du  BELLAY.    (Euvres  poetiques  (Chamard).    Since  1908. 

SENANCOUR.    Obermann  (Michaut).    1912  and  1913. 

VOLTAIRE.    Candide  (Morize).    1913. 

RONSARD.    (Euvres  completes  (Laumonier).    Since  1914. 

HEROET.    (Euvres  poetiques  (Gohin).    1909. 

3.  The  publication  of  the  Pensees  of  Pascal  forms  one  of 
the  most  complicated  and  interesting  problems  in  editing. 
All  the  documents  on  that  question  are  readily  accessible. 
See  especially  the  introductions  to  the  Michaut  edition1  and 

1i8Q7.  See  A.  Gazier,  "G.  Michaut,  Les  Pensees  de  Pascal,"  Revue  d'his- 
toire  litteraire,  1897,  PP-  624-626. 


67 

to  the  Brunschvicg  edition1  ;  the  Manuel  bibliographique  of 
Lanson,  Nos.  4632-4651;  and  the  complete  photographic 
reproduction  of  the  manuscript  published  by  Hachette. 

4.  Not  less  instructive  is  the  history  of  the  edition  of  Mon- 
taigne's Essais.   Nos.  2552-2569  of  the  Manuel  refer  you  to 
some  useful  sources  for  this  study.    See  in  particular  the 
Bordeaux  edition,  published  by  Strowski,  beginning  in  1904, 
and  the  photographic  facsimile  of  the  precious  copy  in  the 
Bordeaux  Library. 

5.  It  has  been  said  that  the  edition  of  Rousseau's  Profes- 
sion 'de  foi  du  vicaire  Savoyard  by  Masson2  "sets  a  standard 
for  publications  of  this  kind,  and  is  the  model  edition  that 
(while  modifying  the  plan  and  the  method  to  suit  particular 
cases)  we  should  always  try  to  approximate".3   You  have 
seen  above  in  what  an  ingenious  way  Masson  arranges  his 
commentary  and  critical  apparatus.    An  introduction,  which 
is  an  example  of  masterly  terseness,  explains  (a)  the  history 
of  the  composition  and  the  publication  of  the  Profession] 
(b)  the  development  of  the  text  traced  through  the  manu- 
scripts and  the  editions;    (c)   the  method  of  the  present 
edition. 

The  historical  commentary,  the  result  of  formidable  re- 
search, is  concentrated  upon  the  following  points:  (a)  works 
that  Rousseau  alludes  to,  and  that  he  refutes;  (b)  origins  of 
his  art  and  erudition;  (c)  biographical  events  that  are  re- 
flected in  his  work;  (d)  texts,  possibly  but  not  necessarily 
known  to  Rousseau,  that  form  "the  intellectual  and  moral 
atmosphere  for  his  maturing  mind". 

It  must  indeed  be  a  fine  edition  that  deserves  the  commen- 
dation that  "every  detail  in  the  critical  apparatus  or  in  the 
commentary  serves  some  purpose". 


3Lanson,  in  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1917,  p.  322. 


68  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Since  these  editions  will  be  useful  as  material  for  critical 
observation  rather  than  as  models  for  beginners  to  imitate, 
I  add  the  names  of  some  excellent  works  on  a  more  restricted 
plan,  which  will  give  you  a  correct  idea  of  the  edition  of  an 
important,  though  more  limited,  text. 

1.  Rabelais,  Lettres  d' Italic,  published  by  Bourrilly  (8vo) 
(1910).    The  book  has  a  successful  typographical  arrange- 
ment, full,  judicious  notes,  and  a  convenient  index. 

2.  Rabelais,  Le  Quart  Lime  de  Pantagruel  ("edition  par- 
tielle",  Lyon,  1548),  critical  text  published  by  Champion 
with  introduction  by  Plattard  (8vo)  (1909).    Its  good  points 
are  a  clear  text,  well-arranged  readings,  a  wisely  planned 
introduction,  and  lucid  and  complete  notes. 

3.  D'Aubigne,  Les  Tragiques,  Livre  I,  Miser es,  published 
under  the  direction  of  Bedier  (i6mo)  (1896). 

4.  Claude  Binet,  La  Vie  de  P.  de  Ronsard,  published  by 
Laumonier  (8vo)  (1910).    The  work  shows  immense  erudi- 
tion, which,  in  my  opinion,  slightly  overbalances  the  text. 
There  is  a  good  critical  commentary.    I  should  prefer  to 
have  the  historical  commentary  arranged  at  the  bottom  of 
the  page  of  text  rather  than  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

5.  Voltaire,  Correspondance  (1726-1729),  published  by 
Foulet    (1913).     This  edition   is  a   model   of   the   critical 
method  applied  to  the  establishment  of  a  text.   The  notes 
and  appendix  clear  up  many  faults  or  inaccuracies  of  pre- 
vious editions. 

6.  In  the  last  few  years  four  editions  have  been  published 
that  are  well  worth  examining:   Lamartine's  Meditations, 
edited  by  Lanson  (2  vols.)  (1915) ;  La  Legende  des  siecles, 
edited  by  Berret  (2  vols.)   (1920);   Telemaque,  edited  by 
A.  Cahen  (2  vols.)  (1920);  Adolphe,  edited  by  G.  Rudler 
(1919).    In  breadth  of  learning  that  never  submerges  the 
text,  in  discriminating  commentary,  and  in  perfect  arrange- 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  EDITION  69 

ment  they  stand  for  an  ideal  that  is,  perhaps,  a  little  dis- 
couraging but  that  certainly  may  act  as  an  inspiration.1 

1  Those  who  wish  to  undertake  the  proper  editing  of  any  of  the  important 
texts  of  the  nineteenth  century  would  do  well  to  know  that  under  the  French 
law  a  writer's  works  belong  either  to  his  editors  or  to  his  heirs  for  a  period 
of  fifty  years,  to  the  day,  after  his  death.  Therefore,  no  one  can  publish,  in 
part  or  in  full,  any  work  thus  protected  without  a  preliminary  understanding 
with  its  legal  owners.  Also,  by  a  very  recent  law,  the  duration  of  the  war 
(1914-1918)  is  not  to  be  included  in  the  legal  fifty-year  period:  the  period 
is  to  be  lengthened  by  five  years.  Thus  the  authors  who  should  have  become 
'public  property'  during  1920  do  not  become  so  until  1925;  among  them  are 
Merimee,  Montalembert,  Alexandre  Dumas  pere,  Jules  de  Goncourt,  Prevost- 
Paradol.  Other  writers  whose  works  will  become  public  property  within  the 
next  few  years  are  the  following:  during  1926,  Emile  Deschamps;  during 
1927,  Theophile  Gautier;  during  1928,  Ernest  Feydeau,  Glatigny;  during  1929, 
Michelet,  Guizot,  Jules  Janin,  Charles  Asselineau;  during  1930,  Quinet,  Tris- 
tan Corbiere;  during  1931,  George  Sand,  Mme  Louise  Colet,  Fromentin. 
Henri  Monnier;  during  1932,  Thiers;  during  1933,  Claude  Bernard,  etc. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ESTABLISHING  A  CRITICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  establishment  of  the  critical  bibliography  of  a  writer, 
of  an  important  work,  or  of  a  question  of  literary  history  is 
one  of  the  most  useful  services  that  a  young  scholar  can  ren- 
der to  science.  Let  it  be  clearly  understood  that  he  should 
not  think  of  undertaking  any  work  comparable  to  those  huge 
bibliographical  monuments  that  usually  represent  more  than 
a  quarter  of  a  century  of  patient,  skillful  research;  for  ex- 
ample, Voltaire,  Bibliographic  de  ses  aeuvres*  by  G.  Ben- 
gesco,  or  the  Bibliographic  des  recueils  collectijs  de  poesie 
publies  de  7577  a  1700?  by  F.  Lachevre.  On  the  contrary, 
it  is  a  question  of  a  work  with  a  definite  aim  that  is  suffi- 
ciently modest  not  to  mean  the  sacrifice  of  a  lifetime ;  it  is  a 
question  of  choosing  a  very  limited  subject,  of  placing  at  the 
disposal  of  anyone  it  concerns  all  the  serviceable  references, 
correctly  presented,  verified,  and  criticized. 

Today,  for  no  matter  what  subject,  the  list  of  printed  ref- 
erences is  long,  at  times  formidable.  If  an  investigator  were 
always  obliged  to  consult  an  exhaustive  list  of  these  refer- 
ences, he  would  inevitably  be  overwhelmed.  Suppose  that  a 
historian  were  to  venture  upon  the  study  of  Jeanne  d'Arc : 
in  the  catalogue  devoted  to  her  by  H.  Stein,  which  does  not 
contain  the  manuscript  documents,  he  would  find  more  than 
twelve  thousand  entries.  He  would  need  at  least  thirty  years 
for  the  mere  perusing  of  these  twelve  thousand  printed  docu- 
ments. And,  to  quote  the  saying  of  a  French  humorist,  by 
that  time  he  would  be  either  dead  or  crazy,  or  would  be  be- 

aln  4  vols.,  8vo.  1882-1891.          2In  4  vols.,  4to.  1901-1905. 

70 


ESTABLISHING  A  CRITICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY       71 

ginning  all  over  again  on  the  amount  of  new  material  printed 
during  those  thirty  years. 

This  is  the  reason  for  the  existence  of  critical  bibliogra- 
phies —  works  not  of  accumulation  but  of  choice,  not  of  pil- 
ing up  but  of  clearing  up.  For  their  given  subjects  they 
should  tell  the  reader  :  At  the  present  day,  here  is  a  list  of 
what  you  must  read  or  examine.  Here  are  the  writer's  works, 
with  the  indispensable  bibliographical  data.  Here  are  the 
publications  that  contain  information  worth  consulting.  The 
rest  is  mediocre  or  bad,  verbiage  or  rubbish. 

By  this  means,  in  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  pages,  it  is 
possible  to  offer  a  very  helpful  bibliographical  introduction.1 
It  often  happens  that  the  bibliography  of  a  thesis  may  or 
should  be  presented  in  this  form. 

How  can  such  a  work  be  prepared,  compiled,  and  ar- 
ranged ? 

It  is  understood  that  you  are  in  possession  of  the  requisite 
materials,  that  you  have  established  and  verified  all  index 
cards  relating  to  your  subject,  as  has  been  explained  in 
Chapter  II  ("Implements  and  Tools:  Bibliography"),  and 
that  these  have  been  classified,  studied,  and  appraised.  There 
remains  to  make  of  them  a  convenient  and  accurate  little  book. 

Let  us  take  two  different  cases  :  the  critical  bibliography 
of  an  author;  the  critical  bibliography  of  a  subject. 

CRITICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  AN  AUTHOR 

A  study  of  the  best  critical  bibliographies  published  re- 
cently, together  with  sound  common  sense,  will  indicate  that 
the  most  logical  and  satisfactory  divisions  are  the  following: 

i.  A  short  biographical  notice.  Give  in  detail  the  chronol- 
ogy of  the  writer's  life. 


F.  Funck-Brentano,  Introduction  aux  bibliographies  critiques  (8vo, 
7  pp.).   Paris,  1899. 


72  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

2.  Manuscripts.   Compile  as  complete  a  list  as  possible  of 
the  manuscripts,  telling  where  they  are  to  be  found  (location 
of  the  library,  call  number,  etc.)  and  what  they  are  (auto- 
graphs or  copies,  well  or  poorly  preserved).    Analyze  the 
contents,  specifying  what  use  has  been  made  of  these  manu- 
scripts in  the  printed  works  and  bringing  to  light  those  that 
may  be  still  inedited.    For  correspondence,  if  the  case  arises, 
mention  where  the  letters  are  stored  and  the  whereabouts, 
if  known,  of  all  scattered  letters,  such  as  those  described  in 
the  catalogues  of  autographs,  etc.1     Mention  in  addition 
which  of  the  manuscripts  are  accessible  to  the  public  and 
how  they  may  be  consulted. 

3.  Works  (or  articles}  published  during  the  author's  life- 
time.   Describe  in  its  chronological  position  each  work  that 
was  published  during  the  author's  lifetime.    This  description 
necessitates  a  technical  knowledge  of  at  least  the  elementary 
facts  about  book  production,  and  especially  about  the  me- 
chanical side  of  it.    Perhaps  this  is  as  good  a  chance  as  any 
to  insist  upon  the  dangers  of  the  average  student's  ignorance 
on  this  subject :  the  art  of  printing  is  linked  in  too  intimate 
a  way  with  literary  history  to  be  safely  neglected.    Whether 
in  establishing  a  critical  bibliography  or  in  preparing  an  edi- 
tion or  the  critical  apparatus  of  an  important  text,  it  is  often 
possible  to  solve  questions  more  rapidly  and  surely  by  simple 
bibliographical  evidence  than  by  purely  literary  methods. 
No  book  exists  for  French  literature  that  in  this  respect  com- 
pares with  Ronald  B.  McKerrow's  excellent  treatise  Notes 
on  Bibliographical  Evidence  for  Literary  Students  and  Edi- 
tors of  English  Works  of  the  XVIth  and  XVIIth  Centuries, 
published  in  the   Transactions  of  the  Bibliographical  So- 

1  Especially  the  catalogues  of  private  or  public  collections  or  of  public  sales. 
See,  for  example,  the  catalogues  of  Charavay,  in  France,  or  that  of  the  Dreer 
Collection  or  of  the  Anderson  Collection,  in  America. 


ESTABLISHING  A  CRITICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY       73 

defy.1  The  examples  are,  of  course,  taken  from  English 
writers,  but  many  of  the  principles  and  suggestions  can 
without  difficulty  be  applied  to  works  printed  in  France. 
Besides  concise  and  clear  details  about  the  making  of  a 
printed  book  and  the  various  stages  in  the  process,2  the 
student  will  find  some  useful  technical  information  on  the 
importance  of  signatures,3  imprints,  and  initials ;  on  the  part 
played  by  watermarks  in  determining  the  size  of  a  book; 
on  the  exact  meaning  of  the  terms  'edition'  and  'issue' 
(p.  260),  with  an  explanation  of  the  particular  cases  that 
may  arise ;  on  the  way  to  distinguish  a  first  impression  from 
those  that  follow  (pp.  264  ff.) ;  on  how  to  tell  whether  two 
copies  belong  to  the  same  edition  (pp.  270-272);  on  the 
importance  of  'cancels'  (French  cartons}  and  the  means  of 
detecting  them.  This  preliminary  study  will  be  of  the  great- 
est service  for  the  descriptions  that  must  be  included  in 
your  critical  bibliography.4  The  following  recommendations 
should  also  be  carefully  observed: 

Reproduce  with  minute  exactness  the  full  title-page,  in- 
cluding the  arrangement  of  the  lines  (separate  them  by 
short,  vertical  strokes).  Do  not  neglect  any  details  or  im- 
perfections in  the  imprint,  ornaments  etc. 

1Vol.  XII,  pp.  213-321.    London,  1914. 

2 "Elementary  instruction  in  the  mechanical  details  of  book  production 
need  occupy  but  a  few  hours  of  a  university  course  of  literature,  and  it  would, 
I  believe,  if  the  course  were  intended  to  turn  out  scholars  capable  of  serious 
work,  be  time  well  spent"  (p.  220).  The  Practice  of  Typography,  by  T.  L. 
De  Vinne  (4  vols.),  is  an  excellent  introduction. 

3 A  'signature'  is  a  distinguishing  mark  (letter  or  number)  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  each  sheet  of  a  book,  to  indicate  its  place  to  the  folder  and  binder. 
— For  any  difficulty  about  the  meaning  of  foreign  technical  terms  see  Voca- 
bulaire  technique  de  l'editeur,en  sept  langues  (Berne,  1913 )  and  H. Ramin,F0ca- 
bulaire  anglais-franqais  et  fran$ais-anglais  des  industries  dulivre  (Paris,  1920). 

4 You  will  find  some  good  technical  advice  in  F.  Madan,  "On  Method  in 
Bibliography,"  Transactions  of  the  Bibliographical  Society,  Vol.  I,  pp.  91- 
102;  and  G.  W.  Cole,  "Compiling  a  Bibliography"  (New  York,  1902)  (re- 
printed from  the  Library  Journal,  1902). 


74  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Note  the  date  of  publication  with  the  greatest  possible 
accuracy.  For  modern  or  recent  books,  thanks  to  the  Journal 
de  la  librairie  and  to  publishers'  announcements,  the  month 
or  the  week  of  their  appearance  may  often  be  determined. 

Next,  mention  all  subsequent  editions,  recording  each  in- 
teresting alteration,  whether  in  the  title  or  in  the  contents  of 
the  volume.  Make  plain,  whenever  you  can,  the  motives  for 
these  alterations. 

Reproduce  any  fragments,  prefaces,  forewords,  suppressed 
passages,  etc.  that  have  disappeared  from  the  current  edi- 
tions and  that  may  be  of  interest  in  tracing  the  history  of  the 
author's  thought.1 

When  it  is  a  question  of  collections  of  poetry,  essays,  or 
treatises,  give  in  detail  the  contents  of  the  volume,  which 
may  vary  from  one  edition  to  another. 

Group  together  any  information  that  gives  an  idea  of  the 
circulation  of  the  work  (numbers  of  copies  printed  at  each 
impression,  reviews  in  journals  and  periodicals,  etc.). 

For  each  volume  state  the  number  of  pages  and,  for  cer- 
tain old  editions,  the  irregularities  of  paging,  signature,  in- 
teresting illustrations,  or  typographical  ornaments,  woodcuts, 
headpieces  and  tailpieces,  etc. 

When  there  are  several  volumes,  or  a  complete  or  incom- 
plete collection  of  an  author's  works,  establish  and  record 
the  date  of  publication  of  each  volume. 

Many  modern  writers,  particularly  since  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  have  first  published  their  works  as 
articles  in  reviews  or  journals  (Chateaubriand,  Lamartine, 
Hugo,  Vigny,  Musset,  Sainte-Beuve,  Renan,  Taine,  Bourget, 

aSee,  for  instance,  Taine's  remarkable  pages,  exhumed  by  V.  Giraud  in 
his  Bibliographic  critique  de  Taine,  particularly  (p.  13)  an  admirable  portrait 
of  Sainte-Beuve  suppressed  from  the  Preface  of  the  Essais  de  critique  et 
d'histoire. 


ESTABLISHING  A  CRITICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY       75 

Anatole  France,  among  others).  Your  critical  bibliography 
should  contain  the  answers  to  the  following  questions  relat- 
ing to  such  articles:  Where  and  when  did  they  appear? 
Were  they  included  in  some  later  work  or  were  they  put  to 
no  further  use  ?  If  they  were  used,  did  they  conform  to  the 
original  text? 

4.  Posthumous  works.    In  addition  to  the  details  already 
suggested,  you  will  note  the  conditions  under  which  posthu- 
mous works  have  been  published :  Who  was  responsible  for 
their  publication?    How  much  was  the  editor  guided  by 
directions  left  by  the  author  ?    Is  his  work  satisfactory,  and 
may  it  be  considered  definitive?     If  errors,  omissions,  or 
corruptions  exist,  what  are  they? 

5.  Correspondence.    Enumerate  the  published  collections 
of  correspondence;  ferret  out  the  letters  not  included  by 
the  editor  of  the  correspondence,  stating  whether  they  were 
overlooked  by  him  at  that  time  and  have  been  published 
later,  or  are  still  in  manuscript. 

6.  Works  to  be  consulted.    It  is  on  the  question  of  works 
to  be  consulted  that  your  bibliography  should  be  truly  criti- 
cal.  Your  aim  should  be,  in  directing  your  reader  to  what 
is  really  useful,  to  save  him  the  time  and  the  trouble  of 
hunting  up  and  reading  hundreds  of  pages,  either  empty  of 
information  or  definitely  superseded  by  more  recent  or  more 
scientific  works.   Your  entries  should  be  followed  by  brief, 
precise  criticisms.    If  a  valuable  review  has  been  published, 
give  the  reference. 

In  particular,  call  attention  to  the  information  that  lies 
hidden  in  the  periodicals,  the  proceedings  of  learned  socie- 
ties, and  other  compilations.  This  is  an  essential  part  of 
your  task.1 

xTake  care  to  state  the  number  of  pages  in  each  article.  This  gives  an 
idea  of  its  importance  if  not  of  its  thoroughness. 


76  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

When  a  work  has  aroused  a  controversy,  group  the  refuta- 
tions, apologies,  and  parodies  round  it ;  make  clear  the  stand 
taken  by  adversaries  and  defenders;  in  short,  restore  the 
work  to  its  exact  environment. 

Finally,  do  not  omit  to  "date  your  bibliography  almost  to 
the  day,  so  that  the  reader  may  know  definitely  when  your 
bibliographical  investigation  ended".1 

To  present  all  this  material  conveniently,  several  arrange- 
ments are  possible.  It  is  for  you  to  choose  that  best  suited 
to  the  specific  question  you  are  treating.2  One  of  the  most 
favorable  methods,  I  think,  consists  in  dividing  your  refer- 
ences into  General  Studies  (in  chronological  or  alphabetical 
order,  or  classified  under  books  and  periodicals — this  last 
arrangement  has  little  to  commend  it)  and  into  Particular 
Studies  (subdivided  into  studies  relating  to  successive  works, 
studies  relating  to  ideas  or  doctrines,  studies  relating  to 
biographical  detail,  etc.). 

7.  In  any  case,  the  work  should  be  completed  by  one 
or  more  indexes,  where,  distinguished  by  different  kinds  of 
type,  the  names  of  persons  and  the  titles  of  works  should 
be  enumerated. 

EXAMPLES  TO  STUDY 

Here  are  four  examples  of  bibliographies  constructed  in 
this  manner,  demonstrating  each  from  a  different  point  of 
view  how  helpful  it  is  to  undertake  and  accomplish  success- 
fully a  work  of  this  kind. 

i.  C.  Urbain,  Bibliographic  critique  de  Bossuet  (8vo, 
31  pp.)  (Paris,  1900).  In  this  little  book,  completed  on 

1  Funck-Brentano,  Introduction  aux  bibliographies  critiques. 

2 Every  bibliographer  while  making  his  investigation  [I  should  add,  "and 
arranging  his  material"]  should  act  as  if  at  some  future  time  he  intended 
to  write  a  comprehensive  work  upon  the  subject  of  his  labors,  and  was  simply 
making  a  preliminary  survey  and  record  of  the  field,  with  this  as  his  main 
purpose  constantly  in  view. —  G.  W.  Cole,  Compiling  a  Bibliography,  p.  4 


ESTABLISHING  A  CRITICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY       77 

September  15,  1899,  the  student  will  find  the  following  points 
particularly  worth  his  notice : 

a.  The  compactness  and  precision  of  the  biographical  data 
(pp.  1-2). 

b.  The  description  of  the  various  editions  of  Bossuet. 

c.  The  bibliographer's  criticism  of  each  edition,  summing 
up  the  work  of  the  editor  and  explaining  to  what  extent  the 
text  may  be  considered  authentic  (pp.  18-21  and  passim). 

d.  The  grouping  of  the  "References  from  Contempora- 
ries" (p.  21 )  and  the  " Refutations  and  Apologies"  (p.  29). x 

2.  V.  Giraud,  Taine,  Bibliographic  critique  (8vo,  81  pp.) 
(Paris,  1902),  completed  in  March,  1902.  This  is  a  true 
model  of  its  kind,  condensed,  clear,  intelligent,  interesting 
to  read.  The  reader  should  pay  particular  heed  to  the  fol- 
lowing points : 

a.  The  clearness  of  the  paragraph  devoted  to  Taine's  man- 
uscripts (p.  2). 

b.  The  defmiteness  and  completeness  of  the  information 
on  every  article  published  by  Taine,  together  with  its  'his- 
tory' ;  that  is  to  say,  the  record  of  how  Taine  afterwards  used 
it,  as  well  as  valuable  extracts  from  the  passages  that  are  not 
reproduced  in  the  later  publications  (pp.  3-43). 

c.  The  full  account  of  the  various  transformations  of  the 
Essai  sur  les  fables  de  La  Fontaine  (p.  5),  and  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Histoire  de  la  litterature  anglaise  (pp.  21-23). 

d.  The  equal  clearness  and  thoroughness  of  the  data  on 
the  references  and  of  his  estimate  of  them ;  for  instance,  the 
work  of  G.  Barzellotti  (p.  54). 

e.  The  publication,  in  the  paragraph  Fragments  de  la  cor- 
respondance,  of  several  letters  scattered  among  the  reviews 

1  Another  bibliography  on  Bossuet,  Bibliographic  rahonnie  des  ceuvres  de 
Bossuet  (i6mo)  (published  by  Verlaque,  Paris,  1908),  offers  an  occasion  for 
instructive  comparison.  Verlaque's  is  perhaps  more  complete,  though  certainly 
less  critical,  than  Urbain's,  which  it  will  neither  supersede  nor  overshadow. 


78  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

or  catalogues,  and  a  critical  study  (p.  47)  resulting  in  the 
rectification  of  the  date  of  one  of  these  letters.1 

3.  G.  Rudler,  Biblio graphic  critique  des  ceuvres  de  Ben- 
jamin Constant  (8vo,  108  pp.)  (Paris,  1908).    Except  in  an 
appendix  that  makes  no  pretense  of  completeness,  Rudler 
does  not  attempt  to  give  a  bibliography  of  works  on  Benja- 
min Constant.    His  chief  aim  is  to  make  an  inventory  of 
Constant's  manuscripts  and  works,  corresponding  to  the 
period  covered  by  his  other  book,  La  Jeunesse  de  Benjamin 
Constant  (Paris,  1908).   A  student  should  study  this  Biblio- 
graphie critique  in  particular  for  the  classification  of  papers, 
the  discussions  concerning  the  dates  of  certain  letters,  the  de- 
scription of  the  manuscripts,  and  the  publication  of  a  large 
number  of  inedited  letters  and  documents. 

4.  G.  A.  Tournoux,  Bibliographie  verlainienne ;  contribu- 
tion critique  a  I'etude  des  litteratures  etrangeres  et  compa- 
rees  (i6mo,  172  pp.)  (Leipzig,  1912).    Tournoux  has  con- 
ceived his  book  along  entirely  different  lines  and  with  quite 
another  purpose  from  the  critical  bibliographies  of  Urbain 
and  Giraud.2    He  desires,  by  the  establishment  of  a  methodi- 
cal bibliography,  to  trace  the  dissemination  and  the  influ- 
ence of  Verlaine's  work  in  the  different  countries  throughout 
the  world.    Considering  successively  the  French-speaking 
countries,  and  then  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Rumania,  Greece, 
Germany,  England  and  English-speaking  nations,  Holland, 
and  the  Scandinavian,  Slavic,  and  Czechic  countries,  he  ex- 

1See,  for  the  same  sort  of  work,  Martino,  "Bibliographie  critique  de 
Fromentin,"  Revue  africaine,  1914  (reprinted  separately) ;  A.Maire,  L'CEuvre 
scientifique  de  Blaise  Pascal:  bibliographic  critique  (8vo,  Paris,  1912)  (a  re- 
markable work);  H.  Cordier,  "Essai  bibliographique  sur  les  oeuvres  d'A.  R. 
Le  Sage,"  Bulletin  du  bibliophile,  January,  igoS-December,  1909;  and  G.  Mi- 
chaut,  Bibliographie  des  ecrits  de  Sainte-Beuve,  at  the  end  of  his  thesis  en- 
titled Sainte-Beuve  avant  les  "Lundis". 

2 A  true  critical  bibliography  of  Verlaine  has  still  to  be  compiled  and  would 
be  a  useful,  interesting  subject  for  a  Ph.D.  thesis. 


ESTABLISHING  A  CRITICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY       79 

amines,  in  each  one,  the  literary  or  critical  studies,  transla- 
tions, anthologies,  poems  on  Verlaine,  and  even  the  poems 
that  have  been  set  to  music.  The  work  has  for  us  a  double 
interest : 

a.  It  illustrates,  on  the  one  hand,  the  fact  that  from  these 
bibliographical  studies,  if  they  are  well  done,  however  dry 
and  narrow  they  may  seem,  general  ideas  of  wide,  keen 
interest  may  be  derived.    This  Bibliographic  verlainienne 
throws  into  strong  relief  the  influence  and  expansion  of  the 
poet's  work;  it  is  immediately  evident  that  "whereas  he  has 
been  popular  in  Germanic  and  Slavic  countries,  he  has  had 
only  a  cold  reception  among  the  Latin  peoples,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Spanish:  let  this  fact  be  explained  by  those 
critics  who  are  specially  concerned  with  literary  psychology 
and  race  affinity.   However  widespread  the  diffusion  of  his 
work,  Verlaine  has  not  been  translated  in  his  entirety.    His 
translators  have  confined  themselves  to  introducing  a  limited 
number  of  his  poems   into   their   languages.     They   must 
have  followed  some  system  in  their  choice.    What  has  guided 
them  ?   Why  has  a  certain  author  in  a  certain  country  pre- 
ferred a  certain  piece?     There  is  material  for  many  in- 
vestigations, as  regards  not  only  Verlaine's  genius  but  the 
character  of  those  who  have  translated  him,  or  for  whose 
benefit  he  has  been  translated."1 

b.  On  the  other  hand,  a  contribution  of  this  type  gives  in- 
teresting suggestions;  it  opens  to  our  students  a  vast  and 
enticing  field.  Without  choosing  too  extensive  or  too  weighty 
subjects,  but  preferably  some   recent  authors   for  whom 
American  libraries  can  more  readily  furnish  the  necessary 
resources,  many  analogous  works  may  be  successfully  under- 
taken.   I  have  in  mind  studies  of  critical  bibliography  on 
Hugo,  Dumas,  Flaubert,  Maupassant,  or  Zola,  in  America 

1  Introduction,  p.  ix. 


8o  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

or  in  England ;  on  the  dissemination  and  reputation  in  France 
of  American  or  English  authors,  or,  indeed,  of  great  writers 
of  other  nationalities,  such  as  Tolstoi  or  Ibsen.  Subjects 
like  these  could  be  treated  by  a  group  of  graduate  students 
working  in  collaboration  in  a  seminar  under  a  professor's 
supervision. 

CRITICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  A  QUESTION  OF  LITERARY 
HISTORY 

Having  considered  the  critical  bibliography  of  an  author, 
we  are  naturally  led  to  a  second  type  of  bibliography — that 
of  a  complete  subject,  or  of  a  movement  of  ideas. 

The  principles  and  rules  evidently  remain  unchanged; 
they  are  merely  adapted  to  the  different  subject  matter. 
Here  again  it  is  precision,  judicious  choice,  critical  apprecia- 
tions enabling  the  reader  to  lay  his  hand  on  something  that 
would  be  difficult  or  impossible  to  discover  for  himself,  reli- 
able and  discriminating  erudition,  that  we  should  struggle 
to  attain. 

Suggestions  for  a  subject  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely: 
(i)  A  critical  bibliography  of  a  literary  genre:1  dramatic 
pastoral;  classic  tragedy  (its  origin);  romantic  drama; 
comedy  of  manners.2  ( 2 )  A  critical  bibliography  of  a  literary 
school  or  epoch:  preciosite;  revival  of  the  taste  for  an- 
tiquity at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century ;  fantastic  litera- 
ture during  the  romanticist  period;  realistic  or  naturalistic 

1  Sec,  for  example,  H.  Vaganay,  Le  Sonnet  en  Italie  et  en  France  au  XVle 
siecle.   Essai  de  bibliographic  comparee  (8vo)   (Lyons,  1903). 

2  Here  is  a  supplementary  suggestion,  found  in  the  Revue  d'histoire  litte- 
raire  (1906),  p.  501:  "A  bibliography  that  should  include  the  keepsakes,  the 
collections  of  extracts,  and  the  literary  periodicals  of  the  Romantic  school, 
would  lead  to  the  discovery  of  many  pages  by  the  best  French  authors  of  the 
nineteenth  century  not  contained  in  their  works,  and  would  supply  a  power- 
ful tool,  and  many  suggestions,  for  literary  historians  and  bibliophiles." 


ESTABLISHING  A  CRITICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY       81 

schools.  (3)  A  critical  bibliography  of  the  relations  of  lit- 
erature at  a  given  time  with  the  fine  arts,  with  philosophy, 
or  with  music.  (4)  Above  all,  a  critical  bibliography  of  a 
great  writer's  influence  in  his  own  or  in  a  foreign  country — 
a  question  that  involves  both  the  bibliography  of  a  writer 
and  the  bibliography  of  a  subject. 

An  admirable  example  of  the  latter  is  the  Bibliographic 
critique  de  Goethe  en  France,by  Baldensperger  (8vo)  (Paris, 
1907).  I  know  few  books  in  which  bibliographical  informa- 
tion is  presented  with  more  acumen  and  skill  or  in  a  manner 
more  stimulating  to  the  reader's  mind.  The  dryness  of  the 
references  is  constantly  relieved  by  brief  and  adequate  com- 
mentaries, valuable  quotations,  and  ingenious  comparisons. 
This  excellent  model,  which  a  student  must  not  expect  to 
equal  in  his  first  attempt,  will,  nevertheless,  point  out  where 
and  how  to  proceed. 


CHAPTER  V 

INVESTIGATION  AND  INTERPRETATION  OF 
SOURCES 

It  is  not  possible  to  reason  in  a  discriminating  manner 
about  an  author's  thought  or  art  or  to  make  a  sound  estimate 
of  his  originality  unless  in  advance  we  have  discovered  and 
explained  whence  his  ideas  have  come ;  by  what  influences 
he  has  been  affected ;  what  writers  have  stimulated  or  nour- 
ished his  thought;  what  books  he  has  imitated,  adapted, 
sometimes  calmly  copied, — in  short,  what  are  the  sources  of 
his  work. 

First,  it  is  necessary  to  agree  on  the  definition  of  a  source. 
To  discover  the  sources  of  a  work  does  not  mean  only  the 
malicious  pleasure  of  pointing  out  in  footnotes  all  passages 
reproduced  with  varying  degrees  of  fidelity  or  servility  from 
another  author.  It  does  not  mean  merely  the  childish  satis- 
faction of  catching,  let  us  say,  Chateaubriand  or  Hugo  'in 
the  act' — the  relish  of  showing  beyond  a  shadow  of  doubt 
that  some  page  of  the  Voyage  en  Amerique  or  some  line  in 
La  Legende  des  siecles  is  nothing  but  a  more  or  less  clever 
appropriation  from  the  text  of  an  obscure  traveler  or  of  a 
forgotten  journalist. 

Not,  indeed,  that  such  criticism  is  unjustified  or  useless. 
I  should  say  even  that  it  is  necessary,  and  this  for  several 
reasons.  First,  because  it  keeps  our  admiration  from  stray- 
ing toward  points  that  do  not  deserve  it.  Next,  because  it 
throws  valuable  light  on  the  working-methods  of  the  writer 
whom  we  are  studying.  Lastly,  because  in  this  way  we  be- 
come better  acquainted  with  the  character  of  the  writer, 

82 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  83 

with  his  scruples  as  to  originality  or  even  as  to  literary 
probity.  Yet  we  must  concede  that  plagiarism  was  formerly 
regarded  in  a  very  different  light  from  what  it  is  today.  If 
Montaigne  blandly  transcribes  entire  fragments  from  other 
writers,  no  one  in  the  France  of  his  day  thought  of  blaming 
him.  Even  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  pub- 
lic opinion  was  still  indulgent  in  this  regard ;  it  was  not  until 
the  last  century  that  plagiarism  was  condemned  as  out-and- 
out  dishonesty.  Up  to  that  time  an  author  had  a  sort  of  recog- 
nized right  to  "take  what  he  wanted  where  he  could  get  it". 
Discovering  a  source  means  something  besides  bringing  to 
light  and  indicating  literal  imitations  or  conformity  of  one 
text  to  another.  It  means  investigating,  finding,  analyzing, 
and  discussing  the  material  of  all  kinds  that  may  have  con- 
tributed to  the  formation  and  the  expression  of  a  great  writ- 
er's thought :  first,  without  doubt,  passages  directly  borrowed 
(whether  admittedly  or  not),  conscious  or  unconscious  imi- 
tations of  some  predecessor;  but  in  addition  other  sources, 
less  obvious,  less  easy  to  define,  sometimes  scarcely  tangible 
— sources  at  least  as  important  as  the  former.  Such  would 
be  the  perhaps  remote  effect  of  education ;  the  impress  left 
by  something  hastily  read;  the  recollection  of  a  conversa- 
tion; the  influence  of  literary,  political,  social,  or  religious 
environment — the  stamp  of  some  tradition,  not  always  to  be 
traced  to  a  particular  book,  but  reacting  upon  the  writer 
through  his  friendships,  his  associations,  and  the  salons, 
academies,  and  social  sets  of  every  sort  that  he  has  fre- 
quented. These  form  the  atmosphere  that  an  author  is 
obliged  to  breathe,  no  matter  how  determined  he  may  be  to 
shut  himself  up  in  his  '  tower  of  ivory ' ;  they  cannot  fail  to 
affect  him  in  some  degree,  positively  or  negatively,  whether 
he  is  swayed  unconsciously  or  whether  he  resolutely  takes 
the  opposite  stand. 


84  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

When  we  speak  of  atmosphere,  of  environment,  we  must 
remember  that  the  literary  works  studied  and  admired  today 
represent  only  a  small  part  of  the  total  production  of  the 
period  in  which  they  appeared.  For  every  masterpiece  or 
work  of  real  worth  that  has  come  down  to  us  there  are 
hundreds,  if  not  thousands,  that  have  sunk  forever  into  the 
oblivion  they  deserve.  There  was  a  time,  however,  when  the 
works  that  are  now  condemned  were  widely  read ;  frequently 
they  had  a  brilliant  though  brief  success.  They  helped  to 
form  the  'ambient'  in  which  our  famous  writers  have  been 
developed,  and,  therefore,  the  extent  to  which  they  have  pro- 
vided or  confirmed  these  writers'  ideas  should  be  taken  into 
account.  If  you  examine  La  France  litteraire  of  Querard 
or  glance  through  Voltaire's  or  Grimm's  Correspondance, 
the  files  of  the  Annie  litteraire  or  of  the  Journal  des  savants, 
you  will  gain  a  superficial  notion  of  what  Voltaire,  Rousseau, 
or  Diderot  very  likely  used  to  read,  week  after  week,  month 
after  month — material  that,  thought  out  anew,  transformed, 
worked  over  and  over,  may  have  reappeared  in  their  writ- 
ings. We  are  disposed  to  accept  too  readily  the  false  theory 
that  great  writers  read  only  great  writers — that  geniuses 
merely  pass  on  the  torch  from  one  to  the  other.  Nothing  is 
more  untrue.  A  certain  celebrated  page  by  Rousseau  can 
be  traced  to  his  having  recently  read  the  Journal  encyclo- 
pedique ;  a  brilliant  witticism  of  Voltaire  was  his  reaction  to 
a  passage  by  an  obscure  and  ignorant  Jesuit  Father.  It  is 
necessary,  then,  in  order  to  clarify  and  understand  the  great 
and  glorious  works  to  spend  much  time  with  the  mediocre 
and  insignificant. 

This  labor  of  investigating  and  discovering  sources  of 
every  kind  is  important,  as  we  have  seen,  because  it  is  the 
indispensable  condition  for  determining  the  originality  of 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  85 

an  author.1  A  time-honored  custom  that  dominates  the 
methods  of  instruction  in  every  country  concentrates  the 
study  of  the  history  of  literature  round  its  masterpieces.  If 
it  is  a  question  of  instruction  only,  nothing  is  more  legiti- 
mate; it  is  always  better  to  read  in  our  classes,  and  to  re- 
quire our  students  to  read,  Corneille  than  Alexandre  Hardy, 
Chateaubriand  than  W.  Bartram,  and  Anatole  France  than 
the  Abbe  de  Villars.  However,  the  moment  that  we  under- 
take a  historical  and  critical  study  of  the  master  writers  the 
point  of  view  changes.  It  then  becomes  a  question  of  dis- 
covering exactly  what  kind  of  men  they  were,  what  new 
ideas  they  contributed,  and  how  much  they  availed  them- 
selves of  traditions,  of  preexisting  thought  and  learning.  This 
knowledge  is  acquired  only  through  as  complete  a  study  as 
possible  of  the  sources  from  which  they  borrowed.  It  is  all 
very  well  to  say  that  Rousseau  introduced  into  eighteenth- 
century  literature  the  type  of  the  abon  sauvage"  and  that 
he  first  expressed  the  "sentiment  de  la  nature";  that  Vol- 
taire imported  English  Deism  into  France ;  that  Du  Bellay's 
Defence  et  illustration  de  la  langue  fran$oise  was  little 
short  of  revolutionary.  These  assertions  on  the  part  of  the 
lecturer  or  the  critic  who  scorns  'facts'  and  limits  himself 
to  ' ideas'  may,  indeed,  be  the  occasion  of  magnificent  rheto- 
ric, whose  least  defect  will  be  its  absolute  erroneousness. 
Nevertheless,  patient  and  thorough  study  of  the  sources — not 
infrequently  leading  to  the  discovery  of  forgotten  documents 
— has  proved  that  the  "bon  sauvage"  existed  long  before 
Rousseau,  who  exploited  rather  than  invented  a  notion  al- 

xAs  a  good  example  of  the  study  of  an  author's  originality  taken  in  con- 
nection with  an  examination  of  his  sources,  see  J.  Plattard,  L' Invention  et  la 
composition  dans  I'&uvre  de  Rabelais  (Paris,  IQOQ)  ;  in  particular,  chap,  i, 
"Les  Rapports  de  Pceuvre  de  Rabelais  avec  la  litterature  romanesque  de  son 
temps,"  and  chap,  vi,  "L'Humanisme." 


86  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

ready  on  the  way  to  general  acceptance;  that  La  Nouvelle 
Helo'ise  did  not  create  the  feeling  for  nature  in  the  eighteenth 
century  but  gave  expression  to  it;  that  Voltaire's  Deism  is 
of  French  rather  than  English  extraction,  and  that  when  he 
left  for  London  in  1726  his  ideas  were  well  established  on 
that  point ;  finally,  that  the  first  book  of  the  Defence  et  illus- 
tration de  la  langue  jranqoise  is  hardly  more  than  a  transla- 
tion, sometimes  verbatim,  of  a  similar  work  published  for 
the  vindication  of  the  Italian  language.  If,  unhappily,  there 
were  not  still  many  critics  and  philosophers  who  refuse  to 
admit  the  necessity  of  researches  of  this  kind,  it  would  be 
superfluous  to  lay  stress  upon  them. 

In  the  second  place,  the  search  for  sources  is  important 
for  establishing  derivations  and  legacies  from  other  writers 
and  epochs.  Again,  it  is  only  by  a  careful  inventory  of  the 
sources,  the  direct  imitations,  or  the  less  obvious  influences 
that  the  degree  of  dependence  between  two  authors  or  two 
periods  may  be  fixed.  Take  Andre  Chenier  as  an  example: 
how  much  does  French  Romanticism  owe  to  him  ?  How  can 
we  answer  this  question  otherwise  than  in  empty  words  be- 
fore we  have  listed  all  possible  comparisons  between  him  and 
Lamartine,  Vigny,  Hugo,  and  the  rest?  Even  when  the  list 
has  been  made,  it  is  evident  that  we  have  not  answered  the 
question  (this  is  a  point  that  we  must  not  lose  sight  of),  but 
we  shall,  at  least,  have  material  with  which  to  answer,  a 
basis  for  reasoning — we  shall  not  be  building  in  the  air. 

Finally,  the  search  for  sources  is  important  because  it 
attracts  attention  to  certain  works  and  certain  writers,  little 
known  and  oftentimes  forgotten,  who  in  their  day  were  the 
vehicles  for  ideas,  or  the  *  exciters'  for  producing  the  thought 
of  more  renowned  writers.  Between  the  radiance  of  the 
seventeenth  century  and  the  brilliant  epoch  of  eighteenth- 
century  philosophy  there  has  long  been  for  us  a  sort  of  black 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  87 

hole ;  the  study  of  the  sources  of  the  famous  writers  of  the 
eighteenth  century  is  dragging  out  of  this  obscurity  many 
writers  who,  during  the  transition  period,  were  their  pre- 
cursors and  their  inspiration. 

As  'source-hunters'  we  do  not  tread  a  safe  path;  before 
proceeding  further  we  should  be  warned  against  certain 
temptations  and  certain  possible  errors. 

i.  First,  we  must  avoid  becoming  < source-maniacs';  that 
is  to  say,  adopting  as  a  postulate  the  theory  that  a  specific 
source  necessarily  underlies  each  passage,  each  line,  of  the 
text  in  question.  Alfred  de  Musset  says,  "It  is  imitating 
someone  to  plant  cabbages"  ("C'est  imiter  quelqu'un  que  de 
planter  des  choux"),  and  it  is  always  " imitating  someone" 
to  write  a  book.  We  cannot  speak  or  write  without  borrow- 
ing the  words  of  others;  as  La  Bruyere  declared  long  ago, 
"everything  has  been  said,  and  we  are  too  late  by  the 
seven  thousand  years  and  more  that  men  have  existed,  and 
thought."  We  must  not,  on  the  pretext  of  pointing  out  a 
source,  multiply  comparisons  that  are  nothing  but  vague 
coincidences  of  words  or  of  thought,  or  uninteresting  repeti- 
tions of  banal  and  everyday  ideas.  Amusing  examples  are 
found  in  E.  Dreyfus-Brisac,  Un  Faux  Classique,  Nicolas 
Boileau,1  or  Plagiats  et  reminiscences,  ou  Le  Jardin  de  Ra- 
cine.2 If  Ronsard  writes, 

Les  matelots  a  la  peur  indomptes, 

and  you  find  in  Boileau, 

Immolent  trente  mets  a  leur  faim  indomptable, 

should  you  conclude  from  this,  as  does  Dreyfus-Brisac,  that 
Boileau  has  here  copied  Ronsard  ?  It  is  also  unwarrantable 

1  Paris,  1901.  2  Paris,  1905. 


88  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

to  discover  plagiarisms,  or  even  sources  or  simple  reminis- 
cences, in  resemblances  of  the  following  kind: 

Accable  de  malheurs,  d'ennui  et  de  tristesse  .  .  . 

ALEXANDRE  HARDY 

Et  que  simple  temoin  du  malheur  qui  1'accable. — RACINE 

Echauffant  les  glacpns  de  cette  ame  cruelle  .  .  . — HARDY 
Et,  de  sang  tout  couvert,  echauffant  le  carnage. — RACINE 

At  this  rate,  when  M.  Jourdain  says  to  his  servant, 
"Nicole,  apportez-moi  mes  pantoufles",  he  certainly  is  guilty 
of  several  barefaced  plagiarisms.  Therefore  do  not  let  us 
hunt  for  sources  or  influences  where  none  exist. 

2.  On  the  other  hand,  when  we  have  found  a  source,  we 
should  not  think  that  it  is  the  only  one — the  only  possible 
one.  We  must  avoid  what  I  call  the  '  hypnotism  of  the  unique 
source.'  Take  warning  from  those  authors  of  monographs 
who,  having  devoted  themselves  largely  to  the  study  of  one 
person,  are  as  a  result  obsessed  with  a  tendency  to  detect 
his  influence  on  every  side.  Lanson  alludes  to  this  when 
he  writes,  "We  study  Lamennais's  influence  upon  Hugo  or 
Lamartine,  and  we  close  our  minds  to  all  the  channels  by 
which  the  same  ideas,  the  same  opinions,  could  have  been 
simultaneously  supplied  to  them".1  He  is  thinking  of  the 
two  books,  by  C.  Marechal,  entitled  Lamennais  et  Victor 
Hugo2  and  Lamennais  et  Lamartine.3  Marechal  is  without 
doubt  the  greatest  authority  on  Lamennais  in  the  world.  For 
years  he  has  made  him  the  centre  of  his  studies,  of  his  in- 
terests, and  of  his  literary  affections.  What,  then,  is  more 
natural  than  the  tendency  to  discover  Lamennais  in  every 
famous  writer  who  could  possibly  have  read  him?  Incen- 
se la  mithode  dans  les  sciences,  Vol.  II,  p.  251. 
2 1906.  3i9O7. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  89 

testably  his  influence  is  real  and  deep  and  should  be  men- 
tioned and  studied;  but  it  should  be  taken  into  account 
(which  Marechal  apparently  has  not  cared  to  do)  that  Hugo 
and  Lamartine  have  felt  other  influences  contradictory  or  cor- 
responding to  Lamennais's.  It  is  obvious  that  in  his  poem  La 
Providence  Lamartine  uses  every  Christian  argument  against 
despair.  "He  takes  them  from  Lamennais",  Marechal  would 
say.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  are  the  commonplace,  tradi- 
tional arguments  by  which  Christian  theology  seeks  to  aid  all 
those  whom  life  discourages  and  disillusions.  Lamartine  did 
not  need  Lamennais's  help  to  discover  and  express  them. 

These  remarks  apply  also  to  those  who  are  hypnotized  not 
merely  by  a  man  but  by  an  idea  or  a  theory.  Take,  for  in- 
stance, the  book  entitled  Montesquieu  et  la  tradition  politique 
anglaise  en  France;  les  sources  anglaises  de  "U  Esprit  des 
lois"  by  J.  Dedieu.1  Throughout  its  pages  we  feel  the  author's 
unconscious  desire  that  everything  in  the  Esprit  des  lois 
should  be  English — his  constant  inclination  to  furnish,  along- 
side Montesquieu's  text,  fragments  of  Sidney,  Locke,  Mande- 
ville,  Gordon,  Arbuthnot,  Warburton,  or  Bolingbroke.  It 
seems  to  us  that  Dedieu,  while  working  on  the  text,  always 
had  one  question  uppermost  in  his  mind.  This  question  was 
not,  Is  there  a  source  for  this  passage,  and  if  so  what  is  it? 
It  was  rather,  Can  I  not  find  some  English  quotation  as 
a  source  for  this  passage  ?  This  ill-advised  method,  although 
it  did  not  entirely  interfere  with  the  usefulness  of  his  book, 
clearly  led  him  to  assert  the  English  origin  of  some  passages 
of  Montesquieu  that  are  merely  reminiscent  of  classic  Greek 
or  Roman  texts.  Furthermore,  he  has  not  taken  into  ac- 
count that  "there  has  existed,  at  least  since  the  Renaissance, 
a  mass  of  notions  and  opinions,  often  contradictory,  which 
forms  a  sort  of  intellectual  atmosphere  breathed  by  all  Euro- 

1  Paris,  1909. 


90  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

pean  students  and  scholars.  Some  principle,  whose  origin 
is  sought  by  certain  critics  in  the  works  of  Clarke  or  even  of 
Bolingbroke,  may  be  traced  to  the  most  venerable  manuals 
of  Roman  law."1 

Therefore  it  behooves  us,  as  I  have  tried  to  show,  not  to 
hunt  for  a  single  source,  or  a  single  category  of  sources, 
where  there  are  many  and  of  various  kinds.  Nor  should  we 
look  at  a  text  through  a  stained  glass  that  prevents  our  de- 
tecting the  differences  in  shade  or  the  odd  medley  of  colors. 

3.  In  the  third  place,  we  should  avoid  the  danger  of  rea- 
soning from  a  resemblance  to  a  direct  dependence.  We  touch 
now  upon  one  of  the  most  indispensable  precautions  in  the 
investigation  of  sources — that  which  applies  to  'intermedi- 
aries.' A  writer  expresses  some  idea ;  another  expresses  the 
same  idea.  We  should  not  be  in  too  great  a  hurry  to  say 
that  the  second  took  the  idea  from  the  first,  even  if  nothing 
contradicts  the  theory.  We  should  make  sure  that  between 
the  two  there  does  not  exist  a  third  writer,  and  perhaps  a 
fourth,  who  served  to  transmit  the  idea,  sometimes,  indeed, 
under  a  new  aspect. 

This  question  of  intermediaries  furnishes  an  occasion  for 
various  comments  on  the  method  of  investigating  sources. 

a.  Even  the  fact  that  a  writer  inserts  a  literal  quotation 
does  not  prove  that  he  has  read  the  book  from  which  it  is 
copied.  There  may  have  been  a  middleman  who  supplied 
the  quotation  ready  to  hand.  Montaigne  quotes  Calpurnius 
and  Prudentius  without  having  read  either  the  one  or  the 
other.  The  three  passages  from  each  that  are  found  in  the 
Essais  were  taken  from  the  writings  of  his  friend  the  learned 
Justus-Lipsius.2  Therefore,  for  the  study  of  Montaigne's 

1H.  Barckhausen,  in  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1910,  p.  407. 

2  See  P.  Villey,  "Amyot  et  Montaigne,"  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1907, 
p.  714;  and  Les  Sources  et  V evolution  des  "Essais"  de  Montaigne,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  92  and  203. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  91 

sources  it  is  the  text  of  Justus-Lipsius  that  is  interesting,  not 
that  of  Calpurnius  or  of  Prudentius.  In  the  same  way  Mon- 
taigne quotes  Florus,  Frontinus,  Polybius,  Vegetius,  although 
he  has  read  none  of  them.  Every  fragment  is  copied  from 
the  Politkorum  Libri  Sex  of  this  Justus-Lipsius,  the  middle- 
man whom  Montaigne  consults. 

We  must  pay  careful  attention,  especially  in  the  case  of 
ancient  writers,  to  the  collections  of  axioms,  maxims,  adages, 
and  extracts  of  all  sorts,  which,  as  inexhaustible  and  varied 
treasure-troves  of  facts,  quotations,  sayings,  similes,  and  an- 
ecdotes, obviate  the  necessity  of  reading  the  original  works. 
Villey  shows  that  Montaigne  owes  much  to  these  miscel- 
lanies. He  cites1  from  the  Apologie  deR.de  Sebond2  a  cer- 
tain passage  containing  four  quotations  and  two  examples 
(from  Terence,  Sophocles,  Athenaeus,  and  Ecclesiastes) .  Do 
not  suppose,  however,  an  equal  diversity  in  Montaigne's  pre- 
paratory reading;  for  the  four  quotations  and  the  two  ex- 
amples are  already  grouped  by  Erasmus  on  one  page  in  his 
Adagia  under  the  title  "Fortunata  Stultitia." 

It  may  perhaps  happen  that  the  very  writer  for  whose 
sources  we  are  looking  acts  as  intermediary  between  himself 
and  a  remote  text.  With  some  particular  work  in  view,  or 
simply  to  preserve  some  useful  or  interesting  passage,  he 
may  keep  a  more  or  less  systematic  notebook.  Later,  when 
another  work  is  in  preparation,  he  consults  this  compilation 
of  facts  and  quotations  (in  the  same  way  as  the  volumes  of 
maxims  and  anecdotes)  long  after  he  has  forgotten  the  re- 
mainder of  the  texts  from  which  he  copied  them. 

Montaigne,  for  instance,  gathers  for  his  own  use  a  num- 
ber of  exact  quotations  from  Latin  writers.  He  reads  his 
Seneca,  picks  out  the  phrases  that  have  impressed  him,  and, 

1  Villey,  Les  Sources  et  devolution  des  "Essais"  Vol.  II,  p.  15. 
2 Montaigne,  II,  12. 


PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 


without  any  particularly  diligent  study  of  the  author,  writes 
an  Essai  composed  of  his  maxims.1 


MONTAIGNE2 

C'est  ce  qu'on  dit,  que  le  sage 
vit  tant  qu'il  doit,  non  pas  tant 
qu'il  peut;  et  que  le  present  que 
nature  nous  ait  faict  le  plus  favo- 
rable et  qui  nous  oste  tout  moyen 
de  nous  pleindre  de  nostre  con- 
dition, c'est  de  nous  avoir  laisse 
la  clef  des  champs. 

Elle  n'a  ordonne  qu'une  entree 
a  la  vie,  et  cent  mille  yssues. 

Pourquoy  te  plains-tu  de  ce 
monde?  II  ne  te  tient  pas:  si  tu 
vis  en  peine,  ta  laschete  en  est 
cause;  a  mourir,  il  ne  reste  que  le 
vouloir: 

Ubique  mors  est :  optime  hoc  cavit 

Deus. 
Eripere  vitam  nemo  non  homini  po- 

test; 
At  nemo  mortem :  mille  ad  hanc  adi- 

tus  patent. 

Et  ce  n'est  pas  la  recepte  a  une 
seule  maladie,  la  mort  est  la  re- 
cepte a  tous  maux.  C'est  un  port 
tres-asseure,  qui  n'est  jamais  a 
craindre,  et  souvent  a  rechercher. 

Tout  revient  a  un:  que  1'homme 
se  donne  sa  fin,  ou  qu'il  la  souffre, 
qu'il  coure  au  devant  de  son  jour, 
ou  qu'ii  Tattende; 


MAXIMS  FROM  SENECA 

Sapiens  vivit  quantum  debet, 
non  quantum  potest. — Epistle  70 

Nil  melius  aeterna  lex  fecit. — 
Epistle  70 

Hoc  est  unum  cur  de  vita  non 
possumus  queri. — Epistle  70 

In  aperto  nos  natura  custodit. 
— Epistle  70 

Unum  introi'tum  nobis  ad  vitam 
dedit,  exitus  multos. — Epistle  70 

Neminem  tenet  (vita)  .  .  .  ? 
Nemo  nisi  vitio  suo  miser  est. — 
Epistle  70 

Scias  ad  moriendum  nihil  aliud 
in  mora  esse,  quam  velle. — Epis- 
tle 70 

Seneca,  Phoenissa,  Act  I,  line 


Non  tantum  hujus  morbi,  sed 
totius  vitae  remedium  est. — Epis- 
tle 78 

Portus  est,  aliquando  petendus, 
nunquam  recusandus. — Epistle  70 

Nihil  existimat  sua  referre,  fa- 
cial finem  an  accipiat,  tardius  fiat 
an  citius. 


1Villey,  Les  Sources  et  Involution  des  "Essais"  Vol.  II,  p.  17. 
211,  3;  Vol.  Ill,  p.  26. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  93 

D'ou  qu'il  vienne,   c'est  tous-         Nemo  nisi  suo  die  moritur.  — 

jours  le  sien:  en  quelque  lieu  que  Epistle  69 

le  filet  se  rompe,  il  y  est  tout,          Ubicumque  desines,  si  bene  desi- 

c'est  le  bout  de  la  fusee.  nis,  tota  est  (vita).  —  Epistle  77 

La  plus  volontaire  mort,  c'est  Bella  res  est  mori  sua  morte.  — 
la  plus  belle.  Epistle  69 

La  vie  despend  de  la  volonte  Vitam  et  aliis  approbare  quisque 
d'autruy;  la  mort,  de  la  nostre.  debet,  mortem  sibi.  —  Epistle  70 

En  aucune  chose  nous  ne  de-  In  nulla  re  magis  quam  in  morte, 
vons  tant  nous  accommoder  a  nos  morem  animo  gerere  debemus.  — 
humeurs  qu'en  celle-la.  Epistle  70 

La  reputation  ne  touche  pas  une         Ad  id  consilium  fama  non  per- 
telle   en-treprise,   c'est   folie   d'en      tinet.  —  Epistle  70 
avoir  respect. 

Le  vivre,  c'est  servir,  si  la  li-  Vita,  si  moriendi  virtus  abest, 
berte  de  mourir  en  est  a  dire.  servitus  est.  —  Epistle  70 

In  this  instance  Montaigne  the  collector  of  the  Latin  max- 
ims is  the  intermediary  between  Seneca  and  Montaigne  the 
writer  of  the  Essai. 

Voltaire  furnishes  us  with  similar  examples.  During  the 
long  years  when  he  was  preparing  the  Essai  sur  les  moeurs 
he  filled  many  books  with  notes  and  references,  preserving 
here  an  entire  passage,  there  a  single  sentence,  here  an 
amusing  anecdote,  there  a  date  or  a  dry  detail;  sometimes 
merely  copying;  sometimes  adding  a  reflection  of  his  own, 
incisive,  scoffing,  caustic.  The  Sottisier1  and  part  of  the 
(Euvres  inedites2  are  instances  of  miscellanies,  or  collections, 
of  this  type.  From  such  collections  arise  in  Voltaire's  mind, 
at  a  later  date,  memories,  reminiscences,  and  allusions  which 
we  should  be  amazed  to  find  grouped  together  did  we  not 
know  that  they  had  already  been  combined  on  the  occa- 


l.  XXXII  (ed.  Moland). 
2  Vol.  I,   Published  by  F.  Caussy,  Paris,  1914. 


94  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

sion  of  a  previous  work.  The  chapter  in  Candide  about 
'Le  Pays  d'Eldorado'1  is  for  the  most  part  constructed  in 
this  way.  Here  again,  it  is  the  author  himself  who  has  been 
the  middleman  between  the  original  texts  and  their  distant 
echo  found  in  his  pages. 

b.  A  special  category  of  intermediaries,  to  which  atten- 
tion must  be  called,  is  composed  of  translations  and  editions. 

Frequently  when  a  writer  borrows  or  receives  his  inspira- 
tion from  some  ancient  or  foreign  text,  it  is  not  the  original 
version  that  has  influenced  him  but  a  translation  or  an 
adaptation.  It  is  clear  in  this  case  that  some  turn  of  phrase, 
some  detail  of  expression, — some  error  perhaps, — may  not 
originate  with  the  author  but  with  the  translator.  What 
Villey  says  of  the  translations  used  by  Montaigne  may  be 
widely  applied: 

We  must  find  out,  as  regards  each  author,  whether  Montaigne 
read  the  text  or  a  translation,  and,  when  he  used  a  translation, 
whose  translation  it  was.  Suppose  that  Montaigne  chooses  an 
expression  that  happily  conveys  the  meaning  of  the  Latin  phrase : 
is  the  choice  his  own,  or  did  some  translator  prompt  him?  Sup- 
pose that  he  mistranslates:  shall  we  impute  the  mistake  to  him, 
or  lay  the  blame  elsewhere?  A  translator  is  often  a  collaborator, 
and  also  often  a  traitor.  We  must  know  how  far  Montaigne  has 
been  aided  and  how  far  betrayed.2 

This  Villey  has  accomplished  in  a  masterly  fashion  in  his 
works  on  the  sources  of  the  Essais. 

1  Chap,  xviii. 

2  For  instance,  Amyot  translated  Plutarch  in  15 72,  after  which  date  editions 
succeeded  one  another  rapidly.   Now  on  page  172   of  the  first  edition  he 
writes,  "Sylla  ayant  pris  la  ville  de  Peruse  condamne  tous  les  habitants  a 
raourir,  except^  son  hote".    But  Ptruse  is  an  error  for  Prtneste,  corrected  in 
the  second  edition.   Montaigne  copies  the  passage,  writes  Ptruse,  and  never 
afterwards  changes  it.    No  more  evidence  is  needed.    See  Villey,  in  Revue 
d'histoire  litteraire,  1907,  p.  715. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  95 

Problems  of  the  kind  are  frequent  among  writers  who 
quote  from  the  Bible.  What  translation  do  they  use? 
Silvestre  de  Sacy's  ?  a  Catholic  or  a  Protestant  version  ?  For 
a  poet  like  Vigny  the  question  is  interesting.1 

In  "Les  Trois  Cents,"  one  of  the  poems  in  La  Legende  des 
siecles,  Hugo  is  inspired  by  Herodotus,  but  not  by  the  Greek 
text:  he  has  taken  the  translation  of  Du  Ryer,  as  E.  Fre- 
minet  has  conclusively  shown.2 

Finally,  along  these  same  lines,  it  is  useful  and  often  pos- 
sible to  determine  exactly  what  edition  an  author  has  fol- 
lowed. On  the  one  hand,  he  may  have  found  in  a  certain 
edition  some  unusual  readings,  which  are  retained  in  the 
borrowed  fragment.  On  the  other  hand,  he  may  have  used 
the  notes,  commentaries,  or  introductions  of  some  particular 
edition  as  additional  material.  For  instance,  Montaigne3 
quotes  an  anecdote  about  Saint  Louis  from  a  "tesmoing  tres 
digne  de  foy",  whom  he  sincerely  believes  to  be  Joinville; 
whereas  it  is  Anthoine  de  Rieux,  who  in  1547  published  the 
first  edition  of  Joinville,  but  in  a  disfigured,  mutilated, 
highly  colored  form.  The  identification  of  the  edition  used 
exonerates  Montaigne.4  In  like  manner  we  find  several  lines 
transferred  intact  to  the  Essais  from  a  note  by  Lambinus  in 
his  edition  of  Lucretius.5 

4.  Another  tendency  should  be  resisted,  which,  though 
resembling  the  mania  for  sources,  differs  essentially  from  it. 
I  call  it  the  obsession  for  the  written  source.  Suppose  that 
in  the  course  of  your  studies  you  come  upon  a  passage  evi- 
dently not  original  with  your  author :  you  feel  convinced 
that  beneath  it  is  a  source  of  information  that  can  be  reached ; 

1See  H.  Alline,  "Deux  Sources  inconnues  des  premiers  poemes  bibliques 
de  Vigny,"  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1907,  pp.  627-636. 

2 Melanges  d'histoire  litttraire,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  4-6.    1906.  3I,  38. 

4Villey,  Les  Livres  d'histoire  moderne  utilises  par  Montaigne,  p.  38. 
5 Ibid.  p.  16. 


96  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

you  find  yourselves  launched  upon  a  tedious  and  endless 
chase  after  a  clue  to  the  document  used  in  the  mysterious 
passage.  You  will  not  find  it,  for  the  excellent  reason  that 
there  is  no  such  document.  You  have  chanced  upon  one  of 
those  sources  that  we  have  already  mentioned, — unwritten 
sources,  information  assimilated  by  the  author  in  conversa- 
tions, in  his  daily  pursuits, — influences  that  you  cannot  hope 
to  trace.  In  this  case  be  resigned  to  your  ignorance;  or,  if 
circumstances  permit,  apply  to  the  problem  the  appropriate 
method,  of  which  farther  on  we  shall  have  examples. 

It  remains  now  for  us  to  form  an  exact  idea  of  the  nature 
of  a  source,  and  of  what  aspects  it  may  assume.  This  may 
be  gathered  from  a  series  of  examples,  proceeding  from  the 
simplest  to  the  most  complex — from  the  fragment  directly 
borrowed  to  the  vague  and  almost  intangible  suggestion.  It 
is  needless  to  say  that  this  classification  is  not  absolute,  that 
there  are  no  perfectly  distinct  types  of  sources.  They  are  of 
all  kinds ;  their  degree  of  relationship  to  the  text  inspired  by 
them  is  infinitely  variable,  and  those  that  follow  are  given 
merely  as  samples. 

i.  Direct  sources.  A  passage  may  be  almost  literally 
transcribed. 

MONTAIGNE  1  AMYOT 

Nous  semblons  proprement  celui  .  .  .  comme  si  quelqu'un  ayant 

qui,  ayant  besoin  de  feu  en  iroit  affaire  de  feu  en  alloit  chercher 

querir  chez  son  voisin,  et  y  en  chez  ses  voisins,  et  la  y  en  trou- 

ayant  trouve   un  beau  et  grand  vant  un  beau  et  grand,  il  s'y  ar- 

s'arreteroit  la  a  se  chauffer,  sans  restoit  pour  toujours  a  se  chauffer, 

plus  se  souvenir  d'en  raporter  chez  sans  plus  se  soucier  d'en  porter 

soi. — I,  25  chez  soi. — Comment  il  faut  outr, 

fol.  30,  V° 

1  Quoted  by  De  Zangroniz,  in  Montaigne,  Amyot,  Saliat,  p.  36, 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES 


97 


MONTAIGNE  l 

J'ay  vu  (dit  Arrius)  autresfois 
un  elephant  ayant  a  chacune  cuisse 
un  cymbale  pendu  et  un  autre  atta- 
che a  sa  trompe,  au  son  desquels 
tous  les  autres  dansoient  en  rond, 
s'eslevant  et  s'inclinant  a  certaines 
cadences  selon  que  1'instrument 
les  guidoit;  et  y  avoit  plaisir  a 
ouyr  cette  harmonic. — II,  12 


CHATEAUBRIAND  2 

L'hibiscus,  cette  herbe  enorme, 
qui  croit  dans  les  lieux  has  et  hu- 
mides,  monte  a  plus  de  dix  ou 
douze  pieds,  et  se  termine  en  un 
cone  extremement  aigu :  les  feuilles 
lisses,  legerement  sillonnees,  sont 
ravivees  par  de  belles  fleurs  cra- 
moisies,  que  Ton  apergoit  a  une 
grande  distance. — Voyage  en  Ame- 
rique,  p.  84 


ARRIAN 

J'ay  veu  autrefois  un  elephant 
ayant  a  chacune  cuisse  un  cymbale 
pendu,  et  un  autre  attache  a  sa 
trompe,  au  son  desquels  tous  les 
autres  elephants  dansoient  en  rond, 
proprement  et  a  certaines  cadences, 
tantost  s'elevant  en  1'air,  ores  s'in- 
clinant, selon  que  le  son  et  la  ca- 
dence du  premier  le  requeroient: 
et  y  avoit  plaisir  a  ouyr  I'harmonie 
de  ces  cymbales. — Translation  by 
Witard,  p.  327 

BARTRAM 

L'hibiscus  coccineus  croit  a  dix 
ou  douze  pieds  de  haut,  en  se  divi- 
sant  regulierement  de  maniere  a 
former  un  cone  aigu.  Ses  branches 
se  subdivisent  de  meme  et  sont  or- 
nees  de  grandes  fleurs  pourpres, 
qu'on  apergoit  a  une  grande  dis- 
tance.— W.  BARTRAM,  Travels,  etc. 
(Dublin,  1793),  p.  102 


VICTOR  Huco3 

C'est  dit;  va  les  chercher.    Mais  qu'as-tu?    Qa  te  fache? 

D 'ordinaire  tu  cours  plus  vite  que  cela! 

— Tiens,  dit-elle  en  ouvrant  les  rideaux,  les  voila ! 

Les  Pauvres  Gens  (1854) 

1  Quoted  by  Villey,  in  Les  Livres  d'histoire  moderne  utilises  par  Montaigne, 
p.  169. 

2 Quoted  by  Bedier,  "Chateaubriand  en  Amerique,"  Etudes  critiques,  p.  203. 

3 See  P.  Berret's  article  "Les  Pauvres  Gens  et  Les  Enfants  de  la  morte" 
Revue  universitaire,  April,  1916,  pp.  265-272.  He  points  out  that,  besides  the 
poem  by  C.  Lafont,  Hugo  had  read  in  the  Presse  (to  which  he  subscribed) 


98  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

CHARLES  LAFONT 

"Adoptons  les  enfants  de  cette  malheureuse.  .  .  . 
Tu  ne  me  reponds  pas  ?    Parle,  tu  m'embarrasses. 
Blames-tu  mon  dessein?    Non,  puisque  tu  m'embrasses. 
Va  chercher  les  enfants." — "Tiens,"  dit-elle,  "ils  sont  la!" 

Les  En j ants  de  la  morte  (1851) 

VICTOR  Huco1 

— C,a,  dit  Roland,  je  suis  neveu  du  roi  de  France, 
Je  dois  me  comporter  en  franc  neveu  de  roi. 
Quand  j'ai  mon  ennemi  desarme  devant  moi, 
Je  m'arrete.    Va  done  chercher  une  autre  epee, 
Et  tache  cette  fois  qu'elle  soit  bien  trempee. 
Tu  feras  apporter  a  boire  en  meme  temps, 
Car  j'ai  soif. 

Le  Manage  de  Roland,  11.  52-58 

JUBINAL 

Olivier,  lui  dit-il,  je  suis  le  neveu  du  roi  de  France,  et  je  dois  agii 
comme  un  franc  neveu  de  roi;  je  ne  puis  frapper  un  ennemi  desarme; 
va  done  chercher  une  autre  epee  qui  soit  de  meilleure  trempe,  et  fais- 
moi  en  meme  temps  apporter  a  boire,  car  j'ai  soif. — Article  from  the 
Journal  du  dimanche,  November  i,  1846 

The  borrowed  passage  may  be  found  in  a  modified  or 
transposed  form. 

on  December  10,  1852,  a  sort  of  plagiarism  in  prose  of  the  poem,  ending  with 
these  words,  which  resemble  even  more  closely  than  Lafont's  the  text  of  La 
Legende  des  siecles:  "Va  les  chercher! — Tiens,  dit-elle  en  tirant  les  rideaux 
du  lit,  les  voila ! "  In  Hugo's  manuscript  the  first  version  is  "  Tiens,  dit-elle 
en  tirant  les  rideaux,  les  voila ! "  See  also  Berret's  edition  of  La  Ltgende  des 
siecles,  pp.  740  ff . 

1  Quoted  and  annotated  in  P.  Berret,  Le  May  en  Age  dans  La  Legende  des 
siecles  et  les  sources  de  Victor  Hugo,  p.  34.  See  also  Berret's  edition  of  La 
Legende  des  siecles,  p.  161. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES 


99 


MONTAIGNE  * 

Cleomenes  disoit  que,  quelque 
mal  qu'on  peut  faire  aux  ennemis 
en  guerre,  cela  estoit  par  dessus  la 
justice,  et  non  subject  a  icelle, 
tant  envers  les  dieux  que  envers 
les  hommes, — et,  ayant  faict  treve 
avec  les  Argiens  pour  sept  jours, 
la  troisieme  nuict  apres,  il  les 
alia  charger  tous  endormis  et  les 
defict,  alleguant  qu'en  sa  treve  il 
n'avoit  pas  este  parle  des  nuicts. 
-1,6 


AMYOT 

II  avoit  faict  treve  pour  sept 
jours  avec  les  Argiens:  la  troi- 
sieme nuict  apres,  .  .  .  il  les  alia 
charger,  .  .  .  et  comme  on  lui 
reprochoit  qu'il  avoit  faulse  la  foy 
juree,  il  respondit  qu'il  n'avoit  pas 
jure  de  garder  les  treves  la  nuict: 
au  demeurant  que  quelque  mal 
que  Ton  peut  faire  a  ses  enne- 
mis .  .  .  cela  estoit  par  dessus  la 
justice  et  non  subject  a  icelle,  tant 
envers  les  dieux  qu'envers  les 
hommes. — Les  Diets  notables  des 
Lacedemoniens,  fol.  217,  V° 


CHATEAUBRIAND2 

Le  P.  Aubry  se  pouvait  sauver, 
mais  il  ne  voulut  pas  abandonner 
ses  enfants,  et  il  demeura  pour 
les  encourager  a  mourir  par  son 
exemple;  jamais  on  ne  put  tirer 
de  lui  un  cri  qui  tournat  a  la 
honte  de  son  Dieu  ou  au  des- 
honneur  de  sa  patrie.  II  ne  cessa, 
durant  le  supplice,  de  prier  pour 
ses  bourreaux  et  de  compatir  au 
sort  des  victimes.  Pour  lui  ar- 


CHARLEVOIX 

Le  Pere  de  Brebeuf  se  riait 
egalement  des  menaces  et  des  tor- 
tures memes;  mais  la  vue  de  ses 
chers  neophytes  cruellement  trai- 
tes  a  ses  yeux  repandait  une 
grand  amertume  sur  la  joie  qu'il 
ressentait  de  voir  ses  esperances 
accomplies.  .  .  .  Les  Iroquois  le 
firent  monter  seul  sur  un  echa- 
faud  et  s'acharnerent  sur  lui.  .  .  . 
Tout  cela  n'empechait  pas  le  ser- 


1  Quoted  by  De  Zangroniz,  in  Montaigne,  Amyot,  Saliat,  p.  29.  Here  the 
modifications  and  transpositions  may  be  explained  by  the  difference  between 
Montaigne's  purpose  and  Amyot's:  in  Montaigne's  version  the  moral  re- 
flection precedes  the  exposition  of  the  fact  that  illustrates  it. 

2 Quoted  by  Bedier,  in  Etudes  critiques,  pp.  270-280.  The  additions  or 
modifications  are  due  to  considerations  of  art  and  of  style.  The  aim  has  been 
to  increase  the  picturesqueness  of  the  description  and  to  fill  out  the  rhythm. 

See  also  G.  Chinard,  "Chateaubriand.  Les  Natchez,  livres  I  et  II.  Con- 
tribution a  1'etude  des  sources  de  Chateaubriand,"  University  of  California 
Publications  in  Modern  Philology,  Vol.  VII  (1919)  >  PP-  201-264. 


100 


PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 


CHATEAUBRIAND  (Continued) 

racher  une  marque  de  faiblesse, 
les  Cheroquois  amenerent  a  ses 
pieds  un  sauvage  Chretien,  qu'ils 
avaient  horriblement  mutile.  Mais 
ils  furent  bien  surpris  quand  ils 
virent  ce  jeune  homme  se  Jeter 
a  genoux,  et  baiser  les  plaies  du 
vieil  ermite,  qui  lui  criait :  M on  en- 
fant, nous  avons  ete  mis  en  specta- 
cle aux  anges  et  aux  homines.  Les 
Indiens,  furieux,  lui  plongerenl  un 
fer  rouge  dans  la  gorge  pour  I'em- 
pecher  de  parler.  Alors,  ne  pou- 
vant  plus  consoler  les  hommes,  il 
expira.  On  dit  que  les  Cheroquois, 
tout  accoutumes  qu'ils  etaienl  a 
voir  des  Sauvages  souffrir  avec 
Constance,  ne  purent  s'empecher 
d'avouer  qu'il  y  avail  dans  I'humble 
courage  du  pere  Aubry  quelque 
chose  qui  leur  etait  inconnu.  .  .  . 
— Atala 


CHARLEVOIX  (Continued) 

viteur  de  Dieu  de  parler  d'une 
voix  forte,  tantot  aux  Hurons, 
qui  ne  le  voyaient  plus,  tantot  a 
ses  bourreaux,  qu'il  exhortait  a 
craindre  la  colere  du  ciel.  .  .  .  Un 
moment  apres  on  lui  amena  son 
compagnon  (le  P.  Lallemant)  qu'on 
avail  enveloppe  depuis  les  pieds 
jusqu'a  la  tele  d'ecorce  de  sapin, 
el  on  se  preparail  a  y  mellre  le 
feu.  Des  que  le  P.  Lallemanl  aper- 
qul  le  P.  de  Brebeuf  dans  1'affreux 
etat  ou  on  1'avail  mis,  il  fremit 
d'abord,  ensuite  lui  dit  ces  paroles 
de  1'Apotre:  Nous  avons  ete  mis 
en  spectacle  au  monde,  aux  anges 
et  aux  hommes.  ...  II  courul  se 
jeler  a  ses  pieds  el  baisa  respec- 
lueusemenl  ses  plaies.  .  .  .  Les 
barbares  enfoncerent  dans  le  gosier 
du  P.  de  Brebeuf  un  fer  rougi  au 
feu.  .  .  .  Son  courage  etonna  les 
barbares  el  ils  en  furenl  choques, 
quoique  accoutumes  a  essuyer  les 
bravades  de  leurs  prisonniers  en 
semblables  occasions. — Histoire  de 
la  Nouvelle  France,  Vol.  I,  pp.  292- 
293 


At  other  times  the  borrowing  is  particularly  interesting 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  author's  style.  The  important 
fact  is  no  longer  that  the  writer  has  taken  ideas  from  some- 
one else  and  has  woven  them  more  or  less  adroitly  or  boldly 
into  the  texture  of  his  book :  it  is  a  question  of  thoughts  that 
have  become  like  his  own  and  have  been  engraved  on  his 
mind  because  they  appealed  to  him,  because  they  agreed 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  101 

with  his  own  imagination  and  taste.    The  study  of  such  sources 
throws  much  light  upon  the  writer's  artistic  personality. 

MONTAIGNE1  AMYOT 

II  est   advenu  aux  gens  veri-  Ainsi    comme    les    laboureurs 

tablement  sgavans  ce  qui  advient  voient  plus  volontiers  les  espis  qui 

aux  espis  de  bled:  ils  vont  s'ele-  penchent  et  se  courbent  contre  la 

vant  et  se  haussant  la  tete  droite  terre  que  ceux  qui  pour  leur  le- 

et  fiere   tant  qu'ils  sont  vuides,  gerete  sont  haults  et  droicts,  d'au- 

mais  quand  ils  sont  pleins  et  gros-  tant  qu'ils  les  estiment  vuides  de 

sis  de  grains  en  leur  maturite,  ils  grain  et  qu'il  n'y  a  presque  rien  de- 

commencent  a  s'humilier  et  a  bais-  dans.   Aussientre  les  jeunes  gens  qui 

ser  les  comes.    Pareillement,  les  se  donnent  a  la  philosophic,  ceux 

hommes  ayant  tout  essaye  et  tout  qui  sont  les  plus  vuides  et  qui  ont 

sonde,  n'ayant  trouve  en  tout  cet  moins  de  pois,  ceux-la  ont  du  com- 

amas  de  science  et  provision  de  mencement  1'assurance,  la  conte- 

tant  de   choses   diverses  rien  de  nance,  .  .  .  et  puis  quand  ils  se 

massif  et  de  ferme,  et  rien  que  commencent  a  remplir  et  a  amasser 

vanite,  ils  ont  renonce  a  leur  pre-  du  fruict  des  discours  de  la  raison, 

somption  et  reconnu  leur  condi-  ils  otent  alors  cette  mine  superbe. 

tion  naturelle. — II,  12  — De  la  vertu  morale,  fol.  37,  E2 

2 .  Documentary  sources.  More  often  than  not  the  source 
is  some  reading  undertaken  by  an  author  to  gain  informa- 
tion on  a  detail  of  his  subject,  and  summed  up  in  a  note 
such  as  we  all  make  when  we  are  verifying  a  doubtful  point. 
For  a  historical  work  the  sources  are  the  documents  that 
the  historian  discovers,  studies,  criticizes  according  to  scien- 
tific methods,  and  cites  either  in  his  footnotes,  appendixes,  or 

1  Quoted  by  Villey,  in  Les  Livres  d'histoire  moderne  utilises  par  Montaigne, 
p.  198. 

2  To  the  examples  quoted  here  may  be  added,  in  particular,  P.  Henriot's 
article  in  Revue  du  temps  present,  August  2,  1912,  where  it  is  shown  that 
Victor  Hugo,  in  his  William  Shakespeare,  calmly  pilfered  from  Guizot's  Shake- 
speare et  son  temps.   See  also  the  many  articles  that  point  out  Stendhal's 
barefaced  plagiarisms,  especially  C.  Stryienski,  "Les  Dossiers  de  Stendhal," 
Mercure  de  France,  October,  1903;  P.  Arbelet,  L'Histoire  de  la  peinture  en 
Italic  et  les  plagiats  de  Stendhal  (1913) ;  M.  Barber,  "Encore  un  plagiat  de 
Stendhal,"  Mercure  de  France,  February  i,  1920;  F.  Gohin,  "Stendhal  pla- 
giaire  de  Meiiinee,"  Minerue  fran^aise,  1920. 


102  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

bibliography.  In  the  case  of  a  literary  work,  a  work  of  art,  the 
scaffoldings,  thanks  to  which  we  can  follow  and  'check  up' 
the  investigations  of  the  historian,  have  been  torn  down. 
The  documents,  the  sources,  are  cleverly  absorbed  into  the 
texture  of  the  work.  It  is,  however,  necessary  to  separate 
them,  to  see  in  what  way  they  have  been  used,  and  how  they 
have  stirred  the  imagination,  the  thought,  or  the  emotions  of 
the  writer.  Examples  might  be  given  by  the  hundred ;  a  few 
must  suffice  to  illustrate  what  precedes. 

Let  us  begin  with  a  scientific  document.  When  Voltaire 
discusses  Newton  in  the  Lettres  philosophiques,1  he  takes 
his  information  for  the  most  part  from  A  View  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton's  Philosophy  by  Dr.  Pemberton.2  While  reading  it 
he  makes  notes,  of  which  the  substance,  and  frequently  the 
detail,  reappears  in  his  composition.3 

VOLTAIRE  PEMBERTON 

Monsieur  Newton  fait  voir  que  Sir  Isaac  Newton  finds  that  the 

la  revolution  du  fluide  dans  lequel  time  of  one  entire  circulation  of 

Jupiter  est  suppose  entraine  n'est  the  fluid  wherein  Jupiter  would 

pas  avec  la  revolution  du  fluide  swim,  would  bear  a  greater  pro- 

de  la  terre  comme  la  revolution  de  portion  to  the  time  of  one  entire 

Jupiter  est  avec  celle  de  la  terre.  circulation  of  the  fluid  where  the 

— Lettres  philosophiques  (Lanson  earth  is,  than  the  period  of  Jupiter 

edition),  XV,  Vol.  II,  p.  18  bears  to  the  period  of  the  earth. — 

A  View  etc.,  Vol.  II,  p.  138 

J.  Morel,  "Recherches  sur  les  sources  du  Discours  de 
Vinegalite"*  gives  many  examples  of  documents  that  may  be 
called  ' philosophical.' 

The  category  of  documentary  sources  par  excellence,  how- 
ever, is  that  of  the  historical  sources.  Here  again  it  would 

iXIV-XVI.  2  London,  1728. 

3  For  particulars  as  to  the  material  borrowed  from  Pemberton,  see  the  com- 
mentary on  these  three  letters  in  Lanson's  edition  of  the  Lettres  philoso- 
phiques, Vol.  II.  *Annales  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau,  Vol.  V. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  103 

be  possible  to  extend  indefinitely  the  list  of  examples.  None 
are  more  instructive  than  those  offered  by  Berret  in  his  splen- 
did work  entitled  Le  Moyen  Age  dans  La  Legende  des  siecles, 
et  les  sources  de  Victor  Hugo.1  We  shall  have  occasion  to  re- 
turn to  him  when  treating  the  ' sources  of  inspiration';  even 
at  this  stage  Berret  enables  us  to  follow  Hugo's  documentary 
processes  with  marvelous  precision.  He  studies  and  com- 
pletes the  catalogue  of  Hugo's  library  at  Guernsey;  knows 
what  books  he  had  at  his  elbow  on  the  shelf  in  his  little 
room ;  what  newspapers  and  magazines  he  read ;  what  clip- 
pings he  made,  and  how  he  filed  them  and  attached  them  to 
the  manuscripts  where  they  were  used.  In  short,  he  lets  us 
sit  beside  Hugo  at  work  and  watch  his  daily  methods. 

If  we  study  the  chapters  devoted  to  such  poems  as  L'Aigle 
du  casque,  Ratbert,  Le  Parricide,  we  shall  be  spectators  of 
Hugo  accumulating  his  notes, — dipping  into  Quentin  Dur- 
ward,  the  Dictionnaire  universel  by  Moreri,  a  little-known 
Introduction  a  I'histoire  du  Danemark  by  Mallet,  and  many 
other  books.  While  preparing  the  poem  Ratbert  he  goes  in 
quest  of  proper  names  of  an  imposing  sonority  and  of  the 
right  length  to  fit  his  line ;  we  catch  him  busy  with  his  list, 
first  hunting  in  the  article  "Malespine,"  in  Moreri's  Diction- 
naire, then  simply  running  through  the  letter  V,  picking  up 
here  and  there  such  names  as  strike  his  fancy.2 

La  meme  flamme  court  sur  les  cinq  Merindades; 
Olite  tend  les  bras  a  Tudela  qui  fuit 
Vers  la  pale  Estrella  sur  qui  le  brandon  luit; 
Et  Sanguesa  fremit,  et  toutes  quatre  ensemble 
Appellent  au  secours  Pampelune  qui  tremble. 

Le  Jour  des  rois,  line  206 

On  divisait  le  royaume  de  Navarre  en  cinq  Merindades  qui  etaient: 
Merindade  de  Pampelune,  d'Olite,  de  Sanguesa,  d'Estella,  de  Tudela.8 — 
Moreri's  Dictionnaire  (Art.  "Navarre") 

1  Paris,  1911.  2P.  Berret,  loc.  tit.  pp.  201  ff.  3Loc.  tit.  p.  162. 


104  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

The  inevitable  conclusion  reached  by  Berret1  is  that  the 
investigation  of  documents  gives  an  entirely  new  idea  of 
Hugo's  processes  of  composition,  and  of  the  origin  and 
growth  of  his  inspiration.2 

3.  Sources  of  detail.  It  is  necessary  only  to  open  some 
good  modern  edition  and  look  through  the  commentary,  or 
glance  at  the  tables  of  contents  of  any  of  the  special  reviews, 
— Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  Modern  Language  Notes,  etc., 
— to  find  innumerable  examples  of  sources  of  detail.  Many 
of  these  sources  are  incontestable ;  many  are  doubtful ;  some 
are  based  on  hardly  acceptable  analogies. 

Comparisons  that  show  merely  from  what  work  the  author 
has  taken  a  certain  fact,  allusion,  or  proper  name  have  no 
great  interest.  They  are,  moreover,  generally  the  easiest  to 
make.  Most  of  the  editions  of  ancient  writers,  and  many 
historical  books  or  collections,  have  tables  of  contents  or 
indexes  that  do  away  with  much  drudgery.  The  informa- 
tion of  real  value  is  that  concerning  the  action  of  the  au- 
thor's mind — the  way  in  which  his  memory  and  emotions 
are  roused. 

Voltaire,  in  the  course  of  a  chapter  in  Candide  (1759), 
tells  us  that  "Pangloss  enseignait  la  Metaphysico-theologo- 
cosmolo-nigologie" — a  magnificent  word,  which  makes  us 
think  of  Rabelais.  How  is  it  formed?  From  a  distant 

1  PP.  387-396. 

2  Other  examples  of  historical  documentation  of  the  same  kind  are  studied 
by  E.  Huguet  in  his  articles  "Quelques  sources  de  Notre-Dame  de  Paris" 
Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1901,  and  "Notes  sur  les  sources  de  Notre-Dame 
de  Paris,"  loc.  cit.,  1903.    See  also,  for  documentary  sources,  J.  Vianey,  Les 
Sources  de  Leconte  de  Lisle,  and  A.  Hamilton,  Sources  of  the  Religious  Ele- 
ment in  Flaubert's  Salammbo  (Johns  Hopkins  Press,  Baltimore,  1918) ;  and 
especially  H.  Chamard's  and  G.  Rudler's  remarkable  work,  "La  Documenta- 
tion sur  le  XVIe  siecle  chez  un  romancier  du  XVIIe :  les  sources  historiques 
de  La  Princesse  de  Cleves,"  Revue  du  seizieme  siecle,  1914. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  105 

recollection,  on  the  one  hand;  with  ironical  intent,  on  the 
other.  A  long  while  before,  he  had  read  in  the  Memoires  de 
Trevoux,  February,  I737,1  an  article  by  the  Jesuit  Father 
Castel,  which  called  Leibnitz's  system  "une  doctrine  physico- 
geometrico-theologique" .  The  expression  is  underlined  in 
the  text  read  by  Voltaire.  We  know  in  this  way  how  the  form 
of  the  pleasantry  became  lodged  in  his  marvelous  memory. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  person  whom  Voltaire  attacks  most 
violently  in  Candide  is  the  German  metaphysician  Christian 
Wolf,  whose  followers  honor  him  for  having  coined  and  cir- 
culated the  term  "cosmology";  therefore  Voltaire  includes 
it  in  the  extravagant,  derisive  vocable  with  which  he  bap- 
tizes the  doctrine  of  Pangloss.  As  for  nigologie,  is  any  com- 
ment needed?  The  amusing,  ridiculous  word  serves  as  a 
fitting  completion  of  the  jest.  Here,  then,  the  source  of 
the  detail  throws  light  upon  the  actual  workings  of  Vol- 
taire's mind. 

Other  instances,  by  illustrating  the  capacity  of  Voltaire's 
memory,  help  us  to  understand  how  he  could  construct 
with  such  astonishing  ease  paragraphs  containing  allusions 
and  reminiscences  traceable  to  I  know  not  how  many 
volumes,  published  at  different  times,  on  every  conceivable 
subject.  "  Je  suis  la  fille  du  pape  Urbain  X  et  de  la  Princesse 
de  Palestrine",  says  "la  Vieille"  in  Candide  in  beginning  her 
story.  Why  this  connection  between  the  names  Urbain  and 
Palestrine?  Because  twenty  years  previously  they  had  ap- 
peared in  one  sentence  in  the  Annales  de  V Empire.  Or  again, 
when  Candide  and  his  little  troop  arrive  at  Buenos  Aires, 
they  present  themselves  to  the  governor  "Don  Fernando 
d'Ibaraa  y  Figueora  y  Mascarenes  y  Lampourdos  y  Souza". 
Voltaire's  agile  mind  gathered  this  imposing  name  from 

ip.  469. 


io6 


PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 


material  found  in  five  scattered  volumes,  and  from  the  list  of 
accomplices  in  the  attack  against  the  king  of  Portugal,  Sep- 
tember, 1758 ;  that  is,  at  the  very  moment  when  Voltaire  was 
writing  his  novel.1 


VOLTAIRE 

II  donna  1'ordre  a  ses  ingenieurs 
de  faire  une  machine  pour  guinder 
ces  deux  hommes  extraordinaires 
hors  du  royaume.  Trois  mille  bons 
physiciens  y  travaillerent ;  elle  f ut 
prete  au  bout  de  quinze  jours  et 
ne  couta  pas  plus  de  vingt  millions 
de  livres  sterling,  monnaie  du  pays. 
On  mit  sur  la  machine  Candide  et 
Cacambo.  .  .  .  Ce  fut  un  beau  spec- 
tacle que  leur  depart,  et  la  maniere 
ingenieusedontilsfurent  hisses  .  .  . 
au  haut  des  montagnes. —  Candide, 
chap,  xviii,  p.  124 


HISTOIRE  DES  SEVARAMBES 

II  nous  dit  qu'il  nous  menerait 
au  haut  de  la  montagne  par  une 
voie  qui  peut-etre  nous  surpren- 
drait.  .  .  .  Nous  trouvames  divers 
grands  traineaux  attaches  a  de 
gros  cables  qui  descendaient  du 
haut  de  la  montagne  ou  ils  etaient 
attaches.  .  .  .  Quand  nous  y  fumes 
monies,  on  donna  un  coup  de 
sifflet,  et  Ton  tira  une  petite  corde 
qui  allait  vers  le  haut;  aussitot, 
nous  sentimes  monter  notre  trai- 
neau  fort  doucement;  .  .  .  par  ce 
moyen,  nous  montames  ce  rideau 
de  montagnes  sans  aucune  peine, 
et  sans  etre  tires  ni  par  hommes 
ni  par  chevaux. —  ad  ed.,  1716, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  156-157 


The  form — the  light  and  nimble  narrative — is  Voltaire's 
own ;  but  to  the  obscure  Denis  Vairasse,  author  of  the  His- 
toire  des  Sevarambes,  he  owes  the  first  idea  of  the  marvelous 
machine. 

In  certain  cases  the  study  of  these  sources  of  detail  per- 
mits us  to  form  a  lifelike  picture  of  the  writer's  literary  proc- 
esses. A  typical  instance  is  the  thirteenth  of  the  Lettres 
philosophiques,  again  by  Voltaire.2  We  find  him  with  a  page 
or  two  to  write  on  the  infinite  variety  of  ways  in  which  "the 

1  Candide  (A.  Morize  edition),  pp.  3  and  58. 

2Lanson  edition,  Vol.  I,  p.  166,  and  Commentaire,  p.  178. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  107 

great  philosophers  have  positively  settled  the  nature  of  the 
soul  of  man".  Hastily  opening  a  copy  of  Bayle's  Diction- 
naire,  he  turns  to  the  precious  table  of  contents  at  the  back, 
hunts  up  some  supplementary  information  in  the  body  of 
the  work,  and  composes  his  eight  or  ten  paragraphs.  Some- 
times he  is  so  hurried  that  he  is  satisfied  with  the  synopses 
furnished  him  by  the  table ;  he  goes  too  fast,  skips  a  line  in 
his  reading,  and  attributes  to  one  the  theory  of  another. 

VOLTAIRE  BAYLE 

Le  divin  Anaxagoras  .  .  .  affirma  AME.  .  .  .    Elle  est  un  etre  ae- 

que  1'ame  etait  un  esprit  aerien,  rienselon  Anaxagoras,  219,  etselon 

mais   cependant    immortel.    Dio-  Diogene  le  Physicien,  II.  297*,  et 

gene  .  .  .  assurait  que  1'ame  etait  une  portion  de  la  substance  de  Dieu 

une  portion  de  la  substance  meme  selon  Cesalpin,   n8b.  .  .  .    Etait 

de   Dieu.  .  .  .    Epicure   la  com-  composee  de  plusieurs  parties  selon 

posait  de  parties  comme  le  corps.  la  doctrine  d'Epicure,  III.  loi3.1 

We  see  that  through  heedless  reading  the  doctrine  of 
Cesalpino  is  transferred  to  Diogenes.  At  Voltaire's  door,  as 
at  many  another's,  instances  of  this  kind  of  inadvertence 
may  be  laid. 

4.  Composite  sources.  It  would  be  a  great  mistake,  as  we 
have  already  pointed  out,  to  think  that  when  a  source  exists 
there  is  but  one  source  for  each  passage  or  each  detail.  A 
poem  or  a  page  of  prose  is  often  a  sort  of  mosaic,  inlaid  more 
or  less  intentionally,  sometimes  in  an  almost  inextricable 
manner,  with  reminiscences  or  fragments  of  varied  nature 
and  origin.  Take,  for  instance,  the  following  poem  by  Andre 
Chenier,  a  real  piece  of  marquetry,  where  traces  of  ancient 
authors,  especially  Greek,  are  recognizable  in  every  line.  For 
the  sake  of  brevity  I  restrict  myself  to  giving  the  references.2 

1The  numbers  and  letters  refer  to  the  volumes,  pages,  and  columns  of  the 
Dictionnaire. 

-From  the  Becq  de  Fouquieres  edition,  p.  56.   Paris,  1872. 


io8  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

CHENIER 

Pleurez,  doux  alcyons !  6  vous,  oiseaux  sacres, 
Oiseaux  chers  a  Thetis,  doux  alcyons,  pleurez  1 
Elle  a  vecu,  Myrto,  la  jeune  Tarentine ! 
Un  vaisseau  la  portait  aux  bords  de  Camarine : 
5  La,  1'hymen,  les  chansons,  les  flutes,  lentement 
Devaient  la  reconduire  au  seuil  de  son  amant. 
Une  clef  vigilante  a,  pour  cette  journee, 
Dans  le  cedre  enferme  sa  robe  d'hymenee, 
Et  Tor  dont  au  festin  ses  bras  seront  pares, 

10  Et  pour  ses  blonds  cheveux  les  parfums  prepares. 
Mais,  seule  sur  la  proue,  invoquant  les  etoiles, 
Le  vent  impetueux  qui  soufflait  dans  les  voiles 
L'enveloppe.    Etonnee,  et  loin  des  matelots, 
Elle  crie,  elle  tombe,  elle  est  au  sein  des  flots. 

15  Elle  est  au  sein  des  flots,  la  jeune  Tarentine! 
Son  beau  corps  a  roule  sous  la  vague  marine. 
Thetis,  les  yeux  en  pleurs,  dans  le  creux  d'un  rocher, 
Aux  monstres  devorants  cut  soin  de  le  cacher. 
Par  ses  ordres  bientot  les  belles  Nereides 

20  L'elevent  au-dessus  des  demeures  humides, 
Le  portent  au  rivage,  et  dans  ce  monument 
L'ont  au  cap  du  Zephyr  depose  mollement ; 
.  Puis  de  loin,  a  grands  cris  appelant  leurs  compagnes, 
Et  les  Nymphes  des  bois,  des  sources,  des  montagnes, 

25  Toutes  frappant  leur  sein  et  trainant  un  long  deuil, 
Repeterent,  helas !  autour  de  son  cercueil : 
"Helas!  chez  ton  amant  tu  n'es  point  ramenee; 
Tu  n'as  point  revetu  ta  robe  d'hymenee : 
L'or  autour  de  tes  bras  n'a  point  serre  de  noeuds, 

30  Les  doux  parfums  n'ont  point  coule  sur  tes  cheveux." 

La  Jeune  Tarentine 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  109 

CLASSICAL  REMINISCENCES 

1.  Catullus,  Cartn.  III.  Antipater  Thessal.  Anth.  IX. 

2.  Virg.  Georg.  I.  399.  215;  Anth.  VII.  188. 
Theocritus,  Idyl.  VII.  57.  8.  Euripides,  Ale.  160. 
Euripides,  Iph.  in  Taur.  1089.  n.  Virg.  JEneid.  VI.  338. 

4.  Schol.  Find.  Olymp.  V.  i.  15.  Bion,  Eleg. 

5.  Several  Greek  Epithalamia.  19.  Propertius,  III.  vii.  67. 

6.  Lucretius,  I.  97.  22.  Strabo,  VI.  i.  7. 
Xenocrates  Rhod.  Anth.  VII.  291.  Anth.  VII.  i. 

Composite  sources  are  met  with  everywhere,  either  in  the 
case  of  authors  such  as  Chenier,  Montaigne,  and  the  poets 
of  the  Pleiade,  whose  minds  are  crammed  with  quotations, 
recollections,  and  details  of  Greek,  Latin,  or  Italian  litera- 
ture; or  in  the  case  of  those  who,  having  read  extensively 
with  a  definite  work  in  view,  exhibit  in  some  later  book 
traces  of  this  reading  which,  though  partly  effaced,  trans- 
formed, or  distorted,  are  yet  unmistakable.  Voltaire's  works 
bristle  with  reminiscences  of  this  kind.  Examine  this  short 
passage  from  Candide : 

Tout  etant  fait  pour  une  fin,  tout  est  necessairement  pour  la 
meilleure  fin.  Remarquez  bien  que  les  nez  ont  etc  faits  pour  porter 
des  lunettes,  aussi  avons  nous  des  lunettes.  Les  jambes  sont 
visiblement  institutes  pour  etre  chaussees,  et  nous  avons  des 
chausses.  Les  pierres  ont  ete  formees  pour  etre  taillees  et  pour  en 
faire  des  chateaux ;  aussi  Monseigneur  a  un  tres  beau  chateau  .  .  . 
(P-  5). 

These  five  or  six  lines,  written  in  1759,  are  the  combina- 
tion of  almost  as  many  memories,  some  of  which  date  back 
more  than  twenty  years.  The  passage  "les  nez  ont  ete  faits 
pour  porter  des  lunettes"  is  taken  from  the  Jesuit  Hart- 
scecker,  whose  Recueil  de  plusieurs  pieces  de  physique'1-  Vol- 
taire read  at  Cirey  at  the  time  when  he  was  working  on 

1i2mo.   Utrecht,  1730. 


no  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Newton  with  Mme  du  Chatelet.1  He  discovered  in  it  the 
following  passage2:  "Je  crains  fort  que  quelque  railleur  ne 
s'avise  de  dire  ici  .  .  .  que  Dieu  a  donne  en  partie  le  nez  a 
I'homme  pour  la  commodite  d'y  mettre  des  lunettes."  He  jus- 
tified the  forebodings  of  the  obscure  Jesuit  when,  in  his  Ele- 
ments de  la  philosophic  de  Newton  (1738),  he  used  the  jest 
for  the  first  time:  "Parce  qu'au  bout  d'un  nombre  prodigieux 
d'annees  les  besides  ont  ete  enfin  inventees,  doit-on  dire  que 
Dieu  a  fait  nos  nez  pour  porter  des  lunettes  ?  " 3  The  idea  had 
lodged  in  a  corner  of  his  brain,  to  reappear  twenty  years  later. 

In  reading  the  pious  dissertations  of  Pluche  in  Le  Spec- 
tacle de  la  nature  (1732)  Voltaire  found4  some  absurd  pas- 
sages on  the  " perfections  de  la  jambe".  These  had  already 
supplied  him  with  the  following  remark:  "Les  hommes  por- 
tent des  chaussures;  direz-vous  que  les  jambes  ont  ete  faites 
par  un  etre  supreme  pour  etre  chaussees?"5  The  way  for 
the  joke  in  Candide  has  been  paved. 

When,  in  November,  1756,  Voltaire's  friend  Thieriot  sent 
him  the  works  of  "1'illustre  vicaire  Derham",  he  read  in  the 
Physico-theology6:  "Le  Createur  a  fait  naitre  des  materiaux 
par  toute  la  terre,  convenables  aux  edifices.  .  .  .  Quelle  bonte 
immense  du  Createur,  .  .  .  cette  variete  immense  de  plantes 
.  .  .  et  de  pierres  \ "  Here  are  noses,  legs,  and  stones,  gath- 
ered from  voluminous  and  scattered  reading. 

An  even  clearer  example  of  Voltaire's  habit  of  using,  in  a 
work  of  fiction,  material  collected  for  some  more  serious 
work  is  Chapter  XVI  in  Candide,  on  the  Oreillons.7  I  give 
a  short  extract  from  it,  with  corresponding  references. 

iSee  Moland  edition,  Vol.  XXXIII,  p.  347.  2  P.  25. 

3  Vol.  XXII,  p.  565.  *  Vol.  V,  pp.  45-Si. 

^Dialogue  entre  Lucrece  et  Posidonius,  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  62.    1756. 

6  Vol.  I,  p.  324.    Translated  into  French  in  1726. 

7  On  pages  96  ff.  of  my  edition  may  be  found  all  the  references.    Here  I  am 
obliged  to  choose  and  abridge. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES 


in 


CANDIDE3 

A  leur  reveil,  ils  sentirent  qu'ils 
ne  pouvaient  remuer;  la  raison 
en  etait  que  pendant  la  nuit  les 


Oreillons,b  habitans  du  pays,  les 
avaient  garottes  avec  des  cordes 


d'ecorce  d'arbre.c    Ils  etaient  en- 
toures  d'une  cinquantaine  d'Oreil- 

lons  tout  nus,d  armes  de  fleches, 
de  massues  et  de  baches  de  cail- 

lou:e    les    uns    faisaient    bouillir 
une  grande  chaudiere;  les  autres 


preparaientf  des  broches,  et  tous 
criaient:  "C'est  un  Jesuite,  c'est 

un  Jesuite;  nous  serons  venges,s 


et  nous  ferons  bonne  chere;h  man- 
geons  du  Jesuite,  mangeons  du 
Jesuite." 


REFERENCES 

aThe  entire  passage  abounds  in 
personal  recollections;  Voltaire  had 
seen  in  Paris,  in  1723,  four  cannibals 
from  Louisiana.  Many  of  his  im- 
pressions of  that  time  are  contained 
in  a  letter  of  October,  1737,  and  also 
in  the  Essai  sur  les  mozurs  (ed.  Mo- 
land,  Vol.  XII,  p.  388). 

bGarcilaso  de  la  Vega,  Histoire 
des  Incas  (1737),  Vol.  I,  p.  91:  "Us 
se  perqaient  les  oreilles  ...  les  Es- 
pagnols  les  nommerent  pour  cela  Ore- 
jones,  ou  hommes  a  grandes  oreilles." 
See  also  La  Condamine,_Re/af  ion  abre- 
gee  du  voyage  etc.,  p.  105. 

c  Voyages  de  Franc ois  Coreal  ( 1 72  2 ) , 
Vol.  I,  p.  195:  "Ils  garrottent  le 
prisonnier  avec  des  cordes  de  colon." 

d  Numerous  references  from  the 
books  of  travel  consulted  for  the 
Essai  sur  les  moeurs. 

e  Voyages  de  Francois  Coreal,  Vol. 
I,  p.  236:  "Nous  trouvames  une  cin- 
quantaine de  Guapaches  armes  de 
fleches  et  de  massues";  and  Vol.  I, 
p.  228  :  "Ils  rotissent  leurs  prisonniers 
et  les  mangent  ...  Ils  ont  pour  arme 
une  espece  de  massue;  ils  se  servent 
pour  couteaux  de  pierres  qu'ils  ai- 
guisent." 

f  Voyages  de  Francois  Cortal,  Vol.  I, 
p.  171 :  "prtparatifs  pour  le  massacre 
de  quelque  captif  dont  la  chair  doit 
les  regaler." 

eVoyages  de  Francois  Coreal,  Vol. 
I,  p.  232:  "Les  pretres  de  ces  sau- 
vages  ha'issent  mortellement  les  J6- 
suites.  .  .  ." 

hMoratori,  Relation  des  missions 
du  Paraguay  (1754):  "Us  se  propo- 
saient  de  faire  un  excellent  repas  de 
la  chair  du  P.  Ruiz,  qu'ils  croyaient 


112 


PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 


CANDIDE  (Continued) 

Candide  s'ecria:  "...  nous  al- 
lons    certainement   etre   rods   ou 

bouillisJ  .  .  ."  Cacambo  ne  per- 
dait  jamais  la  tete:  "Ne  desespe- 
rez  de  rien",  dit-il  au  desole 
Candide:  "j'entends  un  peu  le  jar- 
gon de  ces  peuples,k  je  vais  leur 
parler." — "Ne  manquez  pas",  dit 
Candide,  "de  leur  representer 
quelle  est  Pinhumanite  affreuse  de 
faire  cuire  des  hommes,  et  com- 
bien  cela  est  peu  chretien."1 


REFERENCES  (Continued) 

devoir  etre  fort  delicate,  parce  que  les 
Jesuites  sont  les  seuls  au  Paraguay  qui 
fassent  usage  du  sel." 

JGarcilaso  de  la  Vega,  Vol.  I,  p. 
45:  "Sans  attendre  que  la  chair  soil 
ou  rotie  ou  bouillie,  ils  la  mangent 
goulument.  .  .  ." 

^Voyages  de  Francois  Corial,  Vol. 
II,  p.  30:  "Mon  interprete,  qui  sa- 
vait  une  partie  du  jargon  de  ces 
peuples,  me  servit  beaucoup  dans 
cette  occasion." 

1  Herrera,  Histoire  generate  des  con- 
quetes  des  Castillans  (1671)  (quoted 
in  the  Essai),  $d  decade,  p.  312  :  "Un 
pretre  lui  fit  entendre  que,  pour  se 
sauver,  il  fallait  vivre  selon  la  loi  de 
Jesus-Christ  en  cessant  de  manger  de 
la  chair  humaine."  See  also  page  393  : 
"Ilssacrifiaient  des  hommes,  ils  les  man- 
geaient,  ils  faisaient  d'autres  choses 
abominables,  du  tout  contraires  a 
notre  sainte  joi;  ils  mangeaient  ceux 
qu'ils  captivaient,  dont  Dieu  etait  fort 
ofjensl." 

Reminiscences  occur  throughout  the  chapter,  and  also  in 
the  pages  that  describe  the  travelers'  stay  in  Eldorado.  As 
a  part  of  the  researches  and  documentation  for  the  Essai  sur 
les  mceurs  (1756)  every  book  cited  had  been  read  by  Vol- 
taire, and  the  curious  or  valuable  passages  entered  in  his 
notebooks.  These  passages  he  had,  in  his  role  of  historian 
and  critic,  incorporated  in  the  Essai  sur  les  mceurs ;  he  had, 
however,  through  his  labors  of  documentation  accumulated 
a  reserve  of  concrete  or  picturesque  details,  a  store  of  exact 
or  evocative  terms,  which,  when  the  time  came,  he  was  to  in- 
troduce, in  his  role  of  novelist,  into  the  pages  of  Scarmentado 
or  Candide. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  113 

It  is  true  that  these  details  have  suffered  various  distor- 
tions; the  interest  and  fruit  of  this  study  of  sources  is 
precisely  to  show  how  the  alterations  take  place.  Some  are 
involuntary,  resulting  from  the  inaccuracies  of  memory  of 
the  novelist  who  invents  a  tale  with  his  head  full  of  material 
that  he  attempts  neither  to  dismiss  nor  to  recall.  Others  are 
voluntary,  a  means  of  transforming  some  flat,  colorless  docu- 
ment into  a  paradoxical  or  controversial  satire  or  caricature. 
In  this  respect  the  study  of  composite  sources  is  a  valuable 
auxiliary  to  literary  analysis. 

5.  Oral  and  indefinite  sources.  Lastly,  in  the  investigation 
of  the  sources  of  the  details  of  a  work,  there  is  a  class,  as 
important  as  it  is  difficult  to  trace,  which  deals  with  the  oral 
and  indefinite  sources, — in  other  words,  with  whatever  in- 
spiration a  writer  owes  to  his  environment  (literary,  political, 
artistic,  or  religious),  to  the  thousand  and  one  contacts  that 
stimulate  his  thought  or  his  imagination  and  give  birth  to  an 
idea,  a  word,  or  a  clever  expression.  Is  it  necessary  to  say 
that,  in  most  cases,  these  sources  are  bound  to  elude  us,  and 
that  we  must  be  resigned  ?  It  would  be  absurd  to  expect  to 
grasp  the  intangible :  we  should  risk  obtaining  for  our  pains 
only  worthless  and  ridiculous  results. 

Before  giving  up,  however,  we  must  push  on  as  far  as  we 
can.  It  is,  in  fact,  possible  in  many  cases,  if  not  to  clear  up 
a  definite  point,  at  least  to  group  together  a  certain  amount 
of  information,  a  number  of  facts,  quotations,  and  details  of 
all  sorts,  that  will  help  us  to  study  the  genesis  and  growth  of 
a  writer's  thought  or  style.  We  can  try  to  reconstruct  an  en- 
vironment of  opinion,  thought,  literature,  or  art.  We  can 
revive  the  atmosphere  of  certain  political  or  religious  discus- 
sions: turn  ourselves  into  Jansenists,  the  better  to  explain 
Pascal;  into  philosophers,  to  study  Diderot;  into  Bretons, 
to  follow  the  young  Renan.  We  can  examine  newspapers, 


U4  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

periodicals,  the  innumerable  short  articles  called  forth  by 
special  events,  where  are  recorded  the  freaks  of  public  opin- 
ion, the  transformations  of  customs,  the  fluctuations  of 
thought.  With  their  aid  we  may  get  in  touch  with  the  facts, 
the  ideas,  that  have  reacted  on  our  author. 

There  remain  the  conversations,  the  oral  sources,  forever 
beyond  our  reach.  Here  we  must  accept  the  inevitable.  Yet, 
in  some  cases,  by  means  of  articles,  letters,  or  contemporary 
references,  we  may  hope  to  guess  the  possible  or  probable 
topics  of  these  conversations — a  delicate  and  most  uncer- 
tain method,  to  which  we  shall  have  the  prudence  never  to 
attach  a  demonstrative  value. 

A  few  examples  follow  of  indefinite  sources,  or,  to  be  more 
exact,  of  the  reconstruction  of  an  intellectual  or  literary 
environment. 

a.  Lanson,  in  his  commentary  on  the  Lettres  philo- 
sophiques,  attempts  in  several  places  to  "reconstruct  the 
condition  of  English  public  opinion  and  thought  that  gives 
rise  to  certain  of  Voltaire's  assertions".1  He  accumulates 
quotations  from  authors  whom  Voltaire  may  have  known; 
refers  to  facts  that  may  have  impressed  him ;  gives  informa- 
tion illustrating  what  the  public  round  him  was  feeling  and 
thinking.  See  his  notes  on  the  ninth  letter,  "Sur  le  gouverne- 
ment,"  and  the  remarks  that  preface  it : 

This  letter  is  the  result  of  everything  that  Voltaire  has  read  or 
heard  in  discussions  on  politics  and  on  the  origins  of  the  English 
Constitution  .  .  .  Many  of  my  extracts  will  serve  to  show  the  con- 
dition of  public  opinion  opposed  or  reflected  by  him,  rather  than 
writings  from  which  he  acquired  definite  information.  It  was  a 
subject  threshed  out  daily  in  the  newspapers,  as  it  undoubtedly 
was  in  conversation.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  be  very  cautious 
in  naming  his  sources.2 

1  Introduction,  pp.  1  ff.  2Vol.  I,  p.  108. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  115 

Observations  of  the  same  sort  on  another  subject  are  found 
in  the  commentary  of  the  eighteenth  letter,  "Sur  la  tragedie" : 

Here  it  can  never  be  a  question  of  an  investigation  of  sources, 
in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  except  for  a  small  number  of  facts. 
Voltaire's  zesthetic  judgment  is  the  result  of  a  lifelong  training  and 
a  preference  for  French  art.  Nevertheless,  it  depends  also  in  great 
measure  on  conversations  held  with  cultivated  Englishmen,  whose 
acquaintance  he  had  made.  I  cite  a  certain  number  of  texts,  to 
be  taken  less  as  direct  sources  of  Voltaire  than  as  evidence  of  the 
state  of  English  public  opinion  about  English  writers.1 

These  remarks  are  excellent  and  fitted  for  wide  application. 
b.  Morel,  in  his  "Recherches  sur  les  sources  du  Discours 
de  I'inegalite"2  deals  with  analogous  cases,  which,  neverthe- 
less, differ  somewhat  from  the  above.  He  tries  to  "replace 
Rousseau  in  the  genuine  intellectual  surroundings  where  his 
thought  was  formed ;  to  show  that  there  were  vital  influences 
inducing  him  to  read  certain  books  already  out  of  date". 
Turning,  for  instance,  to  the  study  of  Rousseau's  personal 
relations  with  Diderot,  he  points  out  the  significance  of  these 
relations  in  the  formation  of  Rousseau's  ideas.  He  "recon- 
structs" the  Diderot  whom  Rousseau  knew,  to  whose  "in- 
candescent" conversation  he  listened.  He  pictures  Diderot 
seized  by  the  "pedagogical  mania"  that  made  him  "ha- 
rangue" unceasingly.  Diderot  is  an  insatiable  giver  of  good 
advice ;  he  is  full  of  general  information,  of  plans  that  others, 
who  have  the  time,  may  carry  out.  He  indicates  the  destina- 
tion and  the  route :  he  himself  has  not  patience  for  the  pil- 
grimage. He  must  have  lavished  such  advice  on  Rousseau. 
Morel  tries  to  piece  it  together  as  far  as  possible,  by  analyz- 

1Vol.  II,  p.  88.  It  is  in  this  connection  that  Lanson  gives  the  list  of  plays 
by  Shakespeare  and  other  authors  produced  in  London  during  Voltaire's 
stay. 

2Annales  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau,  Vol.  V  (1909),  pp.  119-198. 


n6  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

ing  and  studying  the  ideas  expressed  by  Diderot  before  1754 
and  by  comparing  them  with  the  Discours  de  I'inegalitt, 
mentioning  also  with  great  scrupulousness  the  necessary 
limitations  of  such  a  method  and  the  impossibility  of  reviv- 
ing everything  supplied  to  Rousseau  by  Diderot's  vigorous, 
enthusiastic  utterances.1 

c.  To  the  same  category  belongs  the  problem  arising 
whenever  an  author  has  been  shaped  by  what  has  gone  be- 
fore him — whenever  his  work,  whether  in  substance  or  in 
form,  is  the  product  of  literary  tradition,  resembling  not  one 
but  a  hundred  others  and  imitating  all  without  imitating  any 
in  particular. 

Candide  furnishes  an  interesting  example.  The  scenario 
of  the  novel  is,  as  it  were,  thrust  upon  Voltaire  in  advance ; 
his  imagination  is  sure  to  work  along  the  lines  where  he  will 
find  everything  in  readiness.  I  cannot  say  that  any  one 
novel  is  the  source  of  the  setting  and  of  the  general  structure 
of  Candide ;  but,  after  reading  nearly  all  the  novels  pro- 
duced during  the  thirty  or  forty  previous  years,  I  can  say 
that  the  source  of  the  scenario  of  Candide  is  the  whole  mass 
of  a  certain  part  of  these  productions — novels  of  adventure 
and  of  imaginary  travels,  in  which  the  plots  follow  an  un- 
alterable plan  and  the  itineraries  can  be  unerringly  pre- 
dicted. It  matters  little  whether  Voltaire  chooses  to  ridicule 

al  quote  here  some  lines  by  Morel  as  defining  clearly  a  few  of  the  prob- 
lems met  with  in  all  investigations  of  sources:  "We  ascertain  the  'written' 
sources,  the  influences,  the  identical  conditions  of  mind;  the  unexpected  de- 
velopments from  very  small  beginnings;  we  run  through  the  entire  gamut  of 
the  voluntary  or  involuntary  deformation  that  ideas  undergo  in  passing  from 
one  mind  to  another.  The  spoken  word  is  more  expressive  than  the  written. 
Diderot,  holding  forth  upon  the  Interpretation  de  la  nature  (published  in 
1754),  must  have  surpassed  his  own  book:  affirming  instead  of  assuming; 
above  all,  introducing  the  problems  and  perhaps  the  solutions  to  be  found  in 
a  later  work.  Still,  it  would  be  a  dangerous  method  to  substitute,  for  the 
book  actually  in  our  possession,  a  hypothetical,  spoken  book"  (p.  119). 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  117 

them  or  to  make  use  of  them:  it  is  here  that  he  finds  his 
background  ready  made,  from  which  he  can  hardly  escape. 
Just  before  Candide  appeared,  a  critic  made  fun  of  the  fic- 
tion of  the  day : 

What  is  there  in  any  novel?  Thwarted  love  affairs,  brutal 
fathers,  quarrelsome  relations,  formidable  rivals,  jealous  rages, 
kidnapings,  sword-thrusts  and  pistol-shots,  dangerous  illnesses, 
unhoped-for  recoveries,  unexpected  meetings,  touching  recognition 
scenes,  virtuous  young  girls,  women  who  are  far  from  virtuous, 
superannuated  husbands  deceived  by  their  'better  halves,'  faithful 
valets,  and  chattering  chambermaids.1 

Is  not  this  all  there  is  in  Candide  ?  The  thwarted  love  of 
Cunegonde  and  Candide;  the  brutality  of  M.  de  Thunder- 
ten-Trunck;  Don  Fernando,  the  formidable  rival;  the  jeal- 
ous rages  of  Don  Issacar;  the  kidnaping  of  his  beloved; 
Candide  transfixing  the  baron;  Pangloss's  illness,  and  his 
unhoped-for  recovery  after  the  crucial  incision  and  the  dis- 
section had  been  begun ;  the  wildly  improbable  meetings  (in 
Venice,  in  Buenos  Aires,  in  Holland,  in  Paraguay) ;  the 
duped  inquisitor;  the  "faithful  Cacambo";  and  the  pretty 
maidservant  ?  Open  at  random ;  look  down  the  table  of  con- 
tents ;  turn  the  pages :  characters,  itineraries,  incidents  and 
adventures,  catastrophes  and  wonders — their  cues  are  num- 
bered by  tens  and  hundreds.  There  are  the  conventional 
development  and  the  inevitable  background  (London,  Por- 
tugal, Venice,  Constantinople,  Amsterdam) .  Corsairs  abound. 
Throughout  is  the  same  succession  of  captures,  abductions, 
recognitions,  escapes ;  throughout,  journeys  to  Lisbon,  Amer- 
ica, Paris,  to  the  carnival  at  Venice.  This  inexhaustible 
rubbish  was  brutally  ridiculed  in  the  brilliant  pages  of  Can- 
dide ;  nevertheless,  Candide  is  what  it  is  only  because  all  the 

1  Annie  litteraire,  Vol.  V  (1757),  p.  70. 


n8  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

rubbish  existed  before  it, — in  short,  this  material  must  be 
considered  one  of  its  sources. 

6.  Sources  of  inspiration.  In  contradistinction  to  the 
sources  that,  whether  unique  or  composite,  affect  only 
the  detail  of  a  work  are  others  that  may  be  called  genera- 
tive sources.1  They  supply  the  writer  with  either  (i)  the 
initial  idea,  (2)  the  subject,  or  (3)  the  setting  and  con- 
texture of  the  work.  The  following  examples  are  chosen 
from  many. 

a.  A  source  that  accounts  for  the  very  existence  of  a  work. 
An  author's  acquaintance  with  a  certain  work  may  stimu- 
late in  him  the  desire  to  produce  a  similar  work,  transformed 
and  adapted  to  suit  the  needs  of  another  public  and  another 
time.  Already  he  may  have  had  some  vague  project,  which 
perhaps  would  have  taken  years  to  materialize,  if  it  had 
materialized  at  all.  It  is  then  that  some  book  takes  effect; 
it  spurs  the  author,  crystallizes  his  ill-defined  aspirations  and 
uncertain  plans.  He  begins  to  write,  and,  following  his  model 
more  or  less  closely,  produces  the  new  work. 

Such  is  the  case  with  La  Deftence  et  illustration  de  la 
langue  frangoise  by  Joachim  du  Bellay.  Before  Villey's 
discovery2  the  ideas  and  theories  brought  forward  by  Du 
Bellay  were  thought  to  spring  from  the  deep-seated  tend- 
encies of  the  French  Renaissance.  Doubtless  Du  Bellay 
would,  in  any  case,  have  been  heard  in  the  violent  debate 
that  stirred  literary  opinion  at  this  time.  Still,  who  knows 
how  long  he  might  have  waited?  who  knows  what  form  he 
might  have  chosen  for  his  book?  As  it  happened,  he  read 

1  Naturally  these  two  categories  are  not  mutually  exclusive :  a  book  that  is 
the  source  of  inspiration  for  an  entire  work  is  very  frequently,  even  usually, 
the  source  of  many  details. 

2Les  Sources  italiennes  de  "La  Defence  et  illustration  de  la  langue  franc,  oise" 
de  Joachim  du  Bellay  (Bibliotheque  litteraire  de  la  Renaissance).  Paris,  1903. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  119 

the  Dialogo  delle  Lingue  of  Sperone  Speroni  (1542).  It  is 
safe  to  say  that,  whatever  he  may  have  borrowed  elsewhere, 
he  took  from  Speroni,  at  the  very  least,  all  the  material  for 
the  first  book  of  the  Defence — not  only  entire  passages  but 
the  fundamental  doctrines. 

Villey  thus  describes  the  effect  produced  upon  the  accepted 
theory  about  Du  Bellay  by  a  simple  investigation  of  sources : 

It  must  be  admitted  that  all  his  ideas  are  borrowed,  that  entire 
pages  are  copied.  These  ideas  have  generally  been  considered 
Du  Bellay's  principal  claim  to  glory,  ...  an  eloquence,  an  en- 
thusiasm, in  which  it  was  good  to  recognize  the  petulant  ardor  of 
a  young  reformer  .  .  .  We  must  learn  to  look  upon  them  as 
merely  the  contributions  of  an  imitator  of  Italy,  who  repeats  for 
our  benefit  what  is  said  across  the  Alps  .  .  .  To  explain  the 
Defence,  it  is  no  longer  sufficient  to  find  in  it  a  reaction  against 
the  Art  poetique  of  Sibilet,  and  to  assert  its  novelty:  the  essential 
point  is  to  reestablish  its  connection  with  an  Italian  movement  of 
ideas ;  to  trace  in  it  the  reflection  of  Italian  theories. 

b.  Suggestion  for  the  subject.  It  is  always  interesting  and 
sometimes  very  illuminating  to  discover  the  origin  of  the 
subject  itself  of  a  work — of  a  play,  poem,  or  novel.  Often 
this  discovery  requires  little  effort.  Mythology  and  Greek, 
Roman,  and  Biblical  history  have  supplied  French  literature, 
as  they  have  every  other,  with  subjects  that  for  centuries 
have  been  chosen  and  rechosen,  treated  and  treated  again. 
In  such  a  case,  unless  we  are  able  to  find  the  intermediary 
directly  used  by  our  author,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  speak  of 
a  source  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  We  should  try 
especially  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  treatment  of  the 
subject  is  original  and  to  give  the  work  its  precise  position  in 
the  general  evolution  of  the  legendary  or  historical  theme. 
This  research  is,  however,  no  longer  a  study  of  sources. 


120  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

On  the  contrary,  there  are  many  cases  where  we  can  wit- 
ness the  very  creation  of  the  work.  We  discover  the  read- 
ing, the  association,  the  impression,  that  set  the  author's 
creative  faculty  in  motion  and  decided  the  direction  of  his 
thought  or  fancy.  In  this  case  precise  investigations  and 
definite  solutions  are  possible. 

We  shall  frequently  see  some  trivial  anecdote,  some  dull, 
colorless  newspaper  article,  some  quotation,  become  as  it 
were  the  spark  that  kindles  the  great  blaze — material  often 
coarse,  neglected  or  unknown,  transformed  by  the  genius  of 
a  great  artist  into  something  precious. 

The  poets  who  are  worthy  of  the  name  are  those  to  whom  it 
matters  little  whence  they  gather  the  wood  for  their  edifices,  and 
this  wood  is  not  always  cut  in  the  forest.  It  may  have  been  used 
several  times  in  former  structures.  The  virtue  of  these  poets  is  that 
they  demolish  the  hovel  that  they  rob ;  above  all,  it  is  that  they 
perceive  their  material  where  the  mass  of  readers,  before  and  after 
them,  have  seen  and  will  see  nothing  worth  gathering  and  using.1 

I  might  enumerate  several  hundred  articles  or  books  where 
examples  of  this  kind  abound;  I  have  space  for  but  two 
or  three. 

(i)  The  typically  'romantic'  subject  of  Victor  Hugo's  Ruy 
Bias2  is  well  known :  the  valet,  Ruy  Bias,  is  in  love  with  the 
queen  of  Spain ;  Don  Salluste,  whom  the  queen  has  sent  into 
exile,  thirsts  for  revenge ;  he  passes  Ruy  Bias  off  as  a  noble, 
Don  Cesar  de  Bazan,  and  orders  him  "de  plaire  a  cette 
femme  et  d'etre  son  amant".  Ruy  Bias  obtains  power,  dis- 
tinctions, and  honors  until  such  time  as  Don  Salluste  con- 
siders his  vengeance  ripe ;  then,  enticing  the  queen  into  the 

aE.  Dupuy,  quoted  by  J.  Giraud  in  (Euvres  choisies  de  Vigny,  p.  xxx. 
21838. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  121 

most  abominable  trap,  Don  Salluste  hurls  at  her  this  vile 
insult:  "Ah!  vous  m'avez  banni.  .  .  .  Moi,  je  vous  ai  donne 
mon  laquais  pour  amant ! "  A  romantic  scenario  of  incredible 
unreality,  which  has  been  the  butt  of  many  critics. 

Lanson  proves1  irrefutably  that  this  "improbable"  sub- 
ject, "this  love  affair  of  a  domestic,  not  with  a  queen,  it  is 
true,  but  with  a  famous  woman,  is  taken  from  real  life,  from 
history." 

It  is  an  episode  in  the  life  of  Angelica  Kauffmann,  the 
artist,  an  episode  that  the  Biographic  nouvelle  des  contem- 
porains2  summarizes  as  follows: 

An  English  painter  whom  she  had  refused  to  marry  revenged 
himself  in  a  manner  unworthy  of  a  gentleman.  He  chose  a  good- 
looking  young  man  of  the  lower  classes,  dressed  him  magnificently, 
and  had  him  taught  the  customs  and  speech  of  men  of  the  world. 
The  fellow,  introduced  to  Angelica  under  the  name  of  Count 
Frederic  de  Horn,  succeeded  in  imposing  upon  the  ingenuousness 
of  the  young  artist.  .  .  .  Hardly  had  the  marriage  taken  place 
when  the  painter  revealed  the  trick. 

The  adventure  is  related  in  the  notice  on  Angelica  published, 
in  the  Galerie  des  contemporains,3  by  A.  Rabbe,  a  great 
friend  of  Hugo ;  later,  in  Leon  de  Wailly's  novel  Angelica 
Kauffmann,  which  came  out  only  a  few  weeks  before  Hugo 
began  to  write  Ruy  Bias.  A  comparison  of  the  detail  of  the 
three  works  is  amusing.  In  Wailly's  novel  the  characters 
have  already  become  dramatic,  the  dialogue  gives  certain  cues 
to  Ruy  Bias,  the  character  of  Don  Salluste  is  seen  emerging. 
From  this  anecdote,  then,  unearthed  in  biographical  diction- 
aries, Hugo  took  the  subject  of  Ruy  Bias. 

1"Victor  Hugo  et  Angelica  Kauffmann,"  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1915, 
pp.  392-401;  supplemented  by  H.  C.  Lancaster,  "The  Genesis  of  Ruy  Bias," 
Modern  Philology,  Vol.  XIV,  March,  1917.  2i823.  3i828. 


122  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Lanson  sums  up  with  precision  the  degree  of  certainty 
reached  in  his  conclusions. 

(a)  It  is  beyond  doubt  that  the  unfortunate  marriage  of  An- 
gelica Kauffmann  to  the  false  Count  de  Horn  furnished  the  subject 
of  Ruy  Bias. 

(b)  It  is  almost  as  certain  that  Victor  Hugo  knew  the  novel  by 
Leon  de  Wailly  founded  on  this  incident. 

(c)  It  is  not  improbable  that  Hugo  became  interested  in  the 
actual  event  through  an  account  by  the  historian  Rabbe.1 

Lanson 's  short  article  is  an  excellent  model  for  any  treat- 
ment of  the  ' sources  of  inspiration'  of  an  author.2 

(2)  The  same  might  be  said  of  Berret's  Le  Moyen  Age 
dans  La  Legende  des  siecles.3  With  immense  learning,  as  well 
as  with  unfailing  psychological  perspicacity,  Berret  describes 
Hugo  as  the  latter  selects  and  works  into  shape  the  subjects 
of  his  "little  epics  of  La  Legende  des  siecles".  Through  a 
study  of  the  poet's  life,  through  an  analysis  of  his  mental 
and  emotional  condition,  the  critic  reconstructs  the  general 
trend  of  Hugo's  tastes  and  prejudices  at  any  given  moment. 
In  Berret's  pages  we  watch  the  poet  falling  under  the  influ- 
ence of  some  reading — a  magazine  article,  a  fragment  from 
a  dictionary — which,  just  at  that  time,  offers  him  a  subject, 
a  setting,  a  scenario,  through  which  he  can  give  vent  to  his 
seething  thoughts  and  tormenting  emotions.  We  observe 
the  decisive  effect  of  an  article  by  the  popularizer  Jubinal, 
"Quelques  Romans  chez  nos  ai'eux,"  printed  in  the  Journal 
du  dimanche  of  November  i,  1846.  The  article  crystallizes 

ip.  400. 

2 Lanson  points  out  also  (Revue  de  Paris,  March  i,  1913,  p.  32)  that 
Alfred  de  Musset's  Fantasia  is  inspired  by  the  marriage  of  the  Princess 
Louise,  daughter  of  Louis-Philippe,  to  Leopold  I,  king  of  the  Belgians. 

3 See  the  interesting  review  by  H.  Potez,  in  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1912, 
PP-  455-457- 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  123 

tendencies,  desires,  plans,  until  then  confused  and  uncertain 
in  Hugo's  mind.  Page  6  of  the  Journal  strikes  him  particu- 
larly ;  he  cuts  it  out ;  in  the  margin  he  jots  down  some  lines 
suggested  by  the  text;  he  groups  other  quotations  and  ex- 
tracts around  this  first  document.  As  Berret  says,  this  page 
is  "the  infinitesimal  source  of  the  immense  work".  Proceed- 
ing farther  with  the  special  study  of  each  piece  in  La  Legende, 
he  points  out,  for  instance,  that  "Le  Mariage  de  Roland"  and 
"Aymerillot"  take  their  subjects  from  the  same  article  by 
Jubinal;  "Le  Cirque  de  Gavarnie"  from  the  Guide  Richard, 
which  Hugo  carried  in  his  pocket  when  visiting  Spain  in 
1843  I  the  pursuit  of  Angus  in  "L'Aigle  du  casque"  from  the 
pursuit  of  Ernaut  in  Raoul  de  Cambrai,  again  in  JubinaFs 
article. 

(3)  Alfred  de  Vigny  was  subject  to  influences  in  much  the 
same  way,  though  his  reading  is  often  of  a  more  dignified 
sort  than  Hugo's.  The  researches  of  Dupuy,  Baldensperger, 
Masson,  and  J.  Giraud,  of  which  I  have  already  spoken,  show 
in  many  instances  the  initial  sources  of  his  inspiration.  Eloa 
was  suggested  to  him  by  reading  Klopstock,  Byron,  and  the 
Loves  of  the  Angels  by  Thomas  Moore.  La  Neige  is  derived 
from  the  little-known  La  Gaule  poetique,  by  Marchangy; 
La  Maison  du  berger  from  a  fragment  of  Book  X  of  Les 
Martyrs,  by  Chateaubriand;  La  Mort  du  loup  from  Byron 
and  from  a  page  of  Macaulay's  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome;  Le 
Mont  des  Oliviers  from  a  part  of  Jean  Paul's  Dream,  trans- 
lated by  Mme  de  Stael  in  De  I'Allemagne ;  etc. 

In  treating  cases  of  this  kind  we  should  never  forget  that 
the  important  point  is  not  to  give  an  exact  reference  to  an 
initial  text  or  document  but  to  show  how  and  why  the  text 
has  played  so  stimulating  a  part  in  the  artist's  inner  life; 
how  and  why  this  harmony  between  two  writers  has  been 
established — this  mysterious  and  fruitful  collaboration  that 


124  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

resulted  in  a  masterpiece.  Once  more,  what  erudition  dis- 
covers is  and  should  be  only  another  step  toward  a  thorough 
psychological  and  aesthetic  acquaintance  with  a  great  author. 

c.  A  source  that  furnishes  the  setting  or  the  contexture  of 
the  work.  We  have  seen  that  a  literary  tradition  may  fur- 
nish the  essential  elements  of  the  scenario  of  a  novel.  In 
certain  instances,  of  course,  a  precise  source  exists.  A  writer 
wishes  to  voice  opinions,  passions,  ideals,  all  of  which  are 
personal  to  himself;  but  he  borrows  the  background  from 
someone  else, — a  series  of  events,  an  arrangement  of  the 
plot,  into  which  his  sentiments  and  his  ideals  fit  quite  nat- 
urally, through  which  they  find  expression. 

Few  novels  are  more  personal  than  Dominique,  exquisite 
and  profound  pages  where  Fromentin  has  set  down  his 
doubts,  his  bitterness,  his  disillusionment.  Apart  from  this 
strictly  personal  side,  however,  there  exist  in  the  novel  a 
background,  a  contexture,  a  series  of  incidents  and  scenes, 
taken  by  Fromentin  from  Mme  de  Duras's  novel  Edouard.1 
It  is  to  Edouard  that  he  owes  the  general  outline  of  Domi- 
nique. A  study  of  his  indebtedness  throws  light  upon  the 
part  in  Fromentin 's  genius  played  respectively  by  his  crea- 
tive imagination  and  his  powers  of  analysis. 

7.  Graphic  and  plastic  sources.  The  enumeration  of  the 
various  categories  of  sources  must  be  completed  by  one  last 
class,  to  which  sometimes  not  enough  attention  is  paid :  the 
graphic  and  plastic  sources — sculpture,  paintings,  engrav- 
ings, book  illustrations.  Many  writers,  poets  and  novelists 
in  particular,  have  a  powerful  visual  imagination.  Their 
eye  is  caught  by  a  painting,  or  by  an  illustration  in  a  book. 
Often  this  is  enough  to  produce  a  lasting  reaction  made  use 
of  later  by  their  creative  genius. 

XG.  Pailhes,  "Le  Modele  de  Dominique"  Revue  bleue,  March  13-20,  1909. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  125 

When  I  was  looking  up  the  sources  of  Candide,  I  could 
not  imagine  where  Voltaire  had  found  the  word  mitre  to  de- 
scribe, in  the  chapter  on  the  Inquisition,  the  headdress  of 
his  hero,  nor  where  he  had  run  across  several  other  details 
in  the  scene  of  the  auto-da-fe.  At  last  I  discovered  that  they 
were  due  to  the  impression  made  by  four  picturesque  engrav- 
ings in  Dellon's  La  Relation  de  I'inquisition.1 

In  a  recent  article  on  La  Sensibilite  plastique  et  picturale 
dans  la  litterature  du  XV IP  siecle2  the  author  has  attempted 
to  show  the  close  relationship  between  many  pages  of  the 
great  classics  and  the  artistic  productions  of  their  time — 
painting,  architecture,  landscape  gardening,  and  interior 
decorating.  These  comparisons  are  judicious;  they  would 
be  more  valuable  if  on  certain  precise  points  we  could  be 
sure  of  a  direct  source  of  inspiration.  Much  still  remains  to 
be  done  in  this  field.  In  1668  La  Fontaine  began  to  publish 
his  Fables',  from  1667  to  1674  the  labyrinth  of  the  gardens 
at  Versailles  was  being  ornamented  with  motifs  in  sculpture 
taken  from  the  Fables  of  ^Esop:  is  this  merely  a  coinci- 
dence ?  For  La  Fontaine's  description  of  Night  in  Le  Songe 
de  Vaux  his  inspiration  is  the  painting  by  Le  Brun  on  the 
ceiling  of  Fouquet's  gorgeous  chateau :  is  this  the  only  defi- 
nite example  that  can  be  mentioned  ? 3 

When  writing  Le  Deluge  Alfred  de  Vigny  was  not  un- 
mindful of  L'Inondation  by  Poussin  nor  of  Le  Deluge  by 
Girodet;  it  is  possible  that  Tony  Johannot's  illustration  for 
The  Pilot  of  Fenimore  Cooper  suggested  to  him  several  de- 
tails in  La  Fregate  la  Serieuse.  As  inspiration  for  La  Colere 
de  Samson  and  Le  Mont  des  Oliviers  Milton,  J.  P.  Richter, 
and  others  should  be  named.  Another  fact,  however,  must 

1  Plates  reproduced  on  pages  45  ff.  of  my  edition. 

2 P.  Dorbec,  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1919,  pp.  374-395- 

3 See  Lafenestre,  Artistes  et  amateurs.    1900. 


126  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

not  be  overlooked :  while  in  England,  at  Lady  Blessington's, 
Vigny  saw  two  masterpieces  by  Mantegna,  since  then  added 
to  the  National  Gallery.  One  is  called  Samson  and  Delilah ; 
the  other,  The  Agony  in  the  Garden.  Dupuy  shows  how 
much  the  opening  lines  of  Vigny's  Mont  des  Oliviers, 

...  La  nuit  n'a  pas  calme 
La  fournaise  du  jour  dont  1'air  est  enflamme, 

recall  the  little  canvas,  "where  what  catches  the  eye  is  the 
stormy,  unforgetable  sky,  streaked  red  and  black".1 

Lastly,  in  Berret's  investigations  of  the  sources  of  La 
Legende  des  siecles  he  repeatedly  dwells  upon  the  role 
played  by  an  engraving,  a  picture,  an  illustration,  as  exciter 
of  the  poet's  imagination.  Hugo  owed  the  vision  that  forms 
the  subject  of  "Montfaucon"  to  an  engraving  by  Daubigny, 
in  the  last  chapter  of  Notre-Dame  de  Paris,2  representing  a 
gallows  with  a  flock  of  birds  disappearing  toward  the  hori- 
zon. A  part  of  "Ratbert"  was  suggested  by  an  engraving  of 
Les  Crimes  des  Papes,  by  La  Vicomterie,3  that  Hugo  had  at 
Guernsey ;  from  it  he  took  several  of  the  attitudes,  tortures, 
and  scenes  of  debauchery  described  in  the  poem.  In  "L'Aigle 
du  casque"  certain  details  come  from  armorial  designs  that 
Hugo  had  seen  in  Debrett's  Peerage  of  1826,  a  volume  he 
undoubtedly  utilized.4  In  "Plein  Ciel,"  Hugo's  aeroscaphe 
is  taken  from  an  illustration  accompanying  an  article  by 
Theophile  Gautier  in  the  Presse5:  "Victor  Hugo,  as  hap- 
pened often,  was  struck  more  with  the  picture  than  with 
the  text."6 

XE.  Dupuy,  Alfred  de  Vigny;  II.   Son  Role  litteraire,  p.  357.   See  also  P. 
Buhle,  Alfred  de  Vignys  biblische  Gedichte  und  ihre  Quellen,  Rostock,  1908. 
2  Gamier  edition,  1844.  3 Paris,  1792. 

*  Berret,  Le  Moyen  Age  dans  La  Legende  des  siecles,  pp.  67, 355,  and  passim. 

5  July  4,  1850. 

6  Berret,  in  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1902,  p.  601.    See  also  Berret's  edi- 
tion of  La  Legende  des  siecles,  p.  793. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  127 

It  is  naturally  at  periods  when  plastic  art  occupies  a  rela- 
tively important  place  in  the  attention  of  authors  and  public 
that  interconnections  of  this  type  become  more  frequent. 
A.  Cassagne,  in  his  book  entitled  La  Theorie  de  I'art  pour 
I'art,1  cites  useful  examples.  Flaubert,  in  preparation  for 
L' Education  sentimentale,  laid  in  a  store  of  maps  and  en- 
gravings of  the  various  quarters  of  Paris  in  which  the  story 
was  laid.  The  first  idea  of  La  Tentatlon  de  Saint  Antoine 
came  to  him  at  Genoa  while  looking  at  a  painting  by  Breughel. 
Herodias  has  as  its  source  of  inspiration  some  sculptures; 
Saint  Julien  I'Hospitalier,  a  stained-glass  window  in  the 
cathedral  at  Rouen.2  Theophile  Gautier  owed  to  a  picture 
by  Fortuny  the  conception  of  his  poetic  ballet  Le  Manage  a 
Seville.3  The  beautiful  Passion  of  Leconte  de  Lisle  was  writ- 
ten "at  the  request  of  a  painter  friend"  to  translate  into 
verse  the  grouping  and  the  emotional  appeal  of  fourteen 
paintings  of  the  stations  of  the  Cross. 

Brunetiere  wrote  in  1883,  "  French  art  in  the  seventeenth 
century  has  not  yet  been  studied  sufficiently  in  its  relation 
to  literature".  This  is  true ;  I  should  add  that  French  litera- 
ture has  not  yet  been  studied  sufficiently  in  its  relation  to 
plastic  art.  This  field  of  research  holds  many  precious  dis- 
coveries in  store. 

The  very  diversity  of  the  examples  that  I  have  just  cited, 
the  possibility  of  multiplying  them  endlessly,  the  impossi- 
bility of  predicting  every  type  of  case  that  may  arise,  are 

1P.  369.    8vo.    Paris,  1906. 

2Maxime  Du  Camp,  Souvenirs  litteraires  (8vo)  (Paris,  1882-1883),  Vol.  II, 
p.  541;  and  J.  Giraud,  "La  Genese  d'un  chef-d'oeuvre,"  Revue  d'histoire  lit- 
teraire,  1919,  pp.  87-93;  M.  A.  N.  Gossez,  Le  Saint  Julien  de  Flaubert  (Lille, 

1903)- 

3Bergerat,  Theophile  Gautier,  p.  211    (reference  given  by  A.  Cassagne, 

loc.  cit.). 


128  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

sufficient  proofs  of  how  foolish  and  futile  it  would  be  to  con- 
clude this  chapter  by  compiling  a  sort  of  Practical  Handbook 
for  the  Investigation  of  Sources,  along  the  lines  of  a  treatise 
on  chemical  analysis.  Abundant  reading,  the  study  of  schol- 
arly works  taken  as  models,  the  comparison  of  methods  that 
have  succeeded  with  those  that  have  failed,  will  be  the 
best  lessons. 

I  venture,  however,  for  convenient  reference,  to  give  a 
brief  list  of  the  principal  fields  for  the  investigation  of 
sources.  Perhaps  special  studies  will  disclose  some  not  men- 
tioned here.  Not  every  research,  obviously,  will  be  produc- 
tive,— I  want  simply  to  show  where  those  who  have  sought 
have  usually  found,  if  not  everything,  at  least  something. 

Any  investigation  of  sources,  I  believe,  may  profitably  in- 
clude all  or  several  of  the  following  steps,  whether  each  proc- 
ess is  pursued  to  its  farthest  limit  or  whether  the  preliminary 
soundings  indicate  that  nothing  is  to  be  hoped  for  in  that 
direction : 

a.  Reconstruction  and  study  of  the  private  library  of  an 
author,1  either  in  case  the  books  are  still  together  or  in  case 
they  are  scattered  where  it  is  possible  to  trace  them.  Inves- 
tigation of  the  notes,  comments,  and  underscorings,  and  of 
dates  and  other  chronological  indications  that  help  to  place 
the  reading  of  each  work. 

b.  Information  about  the  periodicals  (reviews,  newspapers, 
bulletins)  to  which  the  author  may  have  subscribed  (see  lists 
of  subscribers,  catalogues  of  members  of  learned  societies 
and  academies,  etc.). 


1See  works  on  Montaigne's  library,  and  on  books  annotated  by  him.  See 
also,  for  example,  P.  Bonnefon,  "La  Bibliotheque  de  Racine,"  Revue  d'histoire 
litt^raire,  1898,  p.  169;  and  the  many  catalogues  of  libraries  formerly  belong- 
ing to  famous  writers,  such  as  the  library  of  Sainte-Beuve,  that  of  Jules 
Lemaitre,  etc. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  129 

c.  Compilation  of  the  reading  done  by  the  author  from 
clues  given  by  himself  in  his  correspondence  and  other  writ- 
ings:  references  to  proper  names  and  typical  events,  his- 
torical allusions,  etc.    Care  should  be  taken  to  distinguish 
between  the  works  that  the  writer  has  certainly  read  and 
those  that  it  is  probable,  possible,  or  not  impossible  that  he 
has  read. 

d.  Enumeration  of  the  books  or  documents  that  a  writer 
working  on  a  given  subject  at  a  given  time  might  have  con- 
sulted.   Special  attention  (i)  to  intermediaries;   (2)  to  the 
writer's  knowledge  of  foreign  languages. 

e.  Study  of  any  biographical  elements  that  throw  light  on 
the  desired  sources :  friendships,  favorite  resorts,  social,  lit- 
erary, or  religious  groups;   education,  and  the  reading  it 
entails;  travel;  familiarity  with  works  of  art,  with  certain 
neighborhoods  and  scenery, — in  short,  the  immense  contri- 
butions from  life,  which  often  outweigh  the  contributions 
from  books. 

My  concluding  remarks  have  already  been  indicated  in 
the  course  of  the  chapter. 

i.  In  the  first  place,  every  investigation  of  sources  pre- 
supposes on  the  part  of  the  investigator  an  extended,  pro- 
found knowledge  of  literary  environments  and  traditions. 
Each  month,  in  the  special  reviews,  a  certain  number  of 
articles  announce  the  discovery  of  the  source  of  some  im- 
portant work.  When  reading  them  I  always  think  of  the 
satisfaction  of  those  who  have  made  the  discoveries.  But 
very  often,  too  often,  these  so-called  sources  are  only  coin- 
cidences, without  interest  or  significance.  Too  often  the 
illusion  of  the  author  arises  simply  because  he  lacks  a 
general  acquaintance  with  the  literary,  intellectual,  philo- 
sophic, or  artistic  background  of  the  epoch  in  question.  He 
acts  very  much  like  a  student  of  geography  who,  perched  on 


130  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

a  mountain-top  above  an  ocean  of  clouds  and  perceiving  to 
left  and  to  right  of  him  a  few  isolated  peaks,  attempts  to  de- 
scribe the  mountain  range  they  belong  to.  His  work  will 
amount  to  nothing  until  he  sees  the  whole  chain  and  studies 
not  only  the  surface  but  the  layers  of  subsoil.  Likewise, 
we  must  be  judicious  enough  not  to  leap  from  crag  to 
crag  with  the  happy  confidence  engendered  by  ignorance  or 
partial  knowledge. 

2.  In  the  second  place,  do  not  suppose  that  to  discover 
the  source  is  all  there  is  to  do.  In  itself  that  has  no  interest. 
Every  investigation  of  a  source  should  tend  toward  a  definite 
end:  a  wider  and  truer  acquaintance  with  the  author,  his 
thought,  the  evolution  of  his  art,  his  working-methods,  his 
character,  his  originality.  Under  the  inviting  title  Comment 
Voltaire  jaisait  un  livre,1  Lanson,  summarizing  his  search 
for  the  sources  of  the  Lettres  philosophiques,  sets  forth  in  a 
clear  and  concise  form  the  entire  programme  and  the  cau- 
tious method  required  by  such  an  investigation : 

It  would  be  interesting  to  know  with  precision  how  the  book 
grew  in  his  mind ;  to  be  able  to  refer  the  various  parts  to  the  vari- 
ous realities  that  affected  him, — to  the  things  that  he  saw,  the  re- 
marks that  he  heard,  the  books  that  he  read ;  to  have  the  power  to 
determine  what  outside  instigation  and  what  reaction  oj  his  eager 
mind  produced  each  sentence.  By  watching  the  author  at  work, 
by  seizing  events  and  documents  at  the  moment  when  they  were 
first  known  to  him,  and  by  noticing  what  became  of  them  later  in 
his  work,  we  shall,  I  hope,  form  a  more  exact  idea  oj  his  literary 
psychology,  by  which  I  mean  the  play  and  the  processes  of  his 
faculties  as  thinker  and  artist. 

Is  not  this,  expressed  in  modern  terms,  just  what  Mon- 
taigne2 said  a  long  while  ago? 

1  Revue  de  Paris,  August  i,  1908,  pp.  505-533.    The  italics  are  mine. 
2Essais,  HI,  8. 


INVESTIGATION  OF  SOURCES  131 

To  distinguish  in  an  author  the  worthiest  parts,  and  those  more 
strictly  his  own,  the  strength  and  beauty  of  his  soul,  we  must  know 
what  is  his  and  what  is  not ;  and,  in  the  case  of  what  is  not  his, 
how  much  we  owe  to  him  of  the  selection,  arrangement,  ornamen- 
tation, and  language  used  therein.  .  .  . 

On  this  point,  as  on  so  many  others,  the  old  Essais  offer  us 
wise  counsel,  which  here  has  the  practical  ring  of  modern 
methods. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY 
I.  IMPORTANCE  OF  CHRONOLOGY 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  lay  stress  upon  the  importance 
of  chronology  in  all  historical  studies — literary  history  in- 
cluded— were  it  not,  unhappily,  that  experience  in  teaching 
proves  the  need  of  this  insistence.  The  ignorance  and  care- 
lessness of  students  as  to  chronology  are  the  sources  of 
constant  surprises,  which  would  be  amusing  to  their  profes- 
sors and  examiners  if  they  were  not  more  often  discouraging. 
Great  writers  and  great  works  are  sometimes  assigned  dates 
several  centuries  wide  of  the  actual  dates.  As  this  inaccuracy 
is  not  reserved  for  the  history  of  literature  but  frequently 
extends  to  the  history  of  art  and  to  history  in  general,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  many  students  are  impervious  to  general 
ideas  and  syntheses  that  require  the  correlation  of  several 
branches  of  historical  science. 

Familiarity  with  chronology  is  essential  to  any  organized 
knowledge  of  the  past.  When  an  important  historical  or 
literary  fact  is  mentioned,  it  should  be  possible  to  fit  it  at 
once  into  its  literary  and  historical  environment.  An  event 
or  a  work  must  never  appear  isolated,  but  must  be  compre- 
hended in  its  full  relation  to  contemporary  life.  For  ex- 
ample, Corneille's  Le  Cid,  that  great  landmark,  should  link 
itself  instantly  with  other  momentous  events.  Le  Cid  ap- 
peared in  1636:  now  1635  is  the  date  of  the  founding  of 
the  Academic  franchise;  1636,  of  the  organization  of  Port- 
is2 


CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY          133 

Royal;  1637,  of  the  publication  of  Descartes's  Discours  sur 
la  methode.  And  in  reading  the  Histoire  de  la  litterature 
anglaise  of  Taine  (1864)  would  it  not  be  profitable  to  re- 
member that  the  French  translation  of  Darwin's  Origin  of 
Species  dates  from  1862,  Kenan's  Vie  de  Jesus  from  1863, 
La  Cite  antique  of  Fustel  de  Coulanges  from  1864,  the  In- 
troduction a  I' etude  de  la  medecine  experimental  of  Claude 
Bernard  from  1865? 

Chronology,  however,  is  not  an  object  of  study :  I  should 
call  it,  rather,  a  habit  of  mind.  Do  not  suppose  that  on  the 
day  when  you  become  unpleasantly  aware  of  the  gaps  in 
your  knowledge  of  dates  it  is  enough  to  say  to  yourselves, 
"Now  I  am  going  to  take  up  chronology!"  Any  such  plan 
would  be  mere  waste  of  time.  The  best  way,  to  borrow  a 
famous  saying,  is  "de  n'en  point  parler,  mais  d'y  penser 
toujours".  I  mean  that  during  your  work,  on  whatever  sub- 
ject it  may  be, — literature,  history,  philosophy,  art,  or  edu- 
cation,— you  should  constantly  make  a  particular  point  of 
impressing  on  your  mind  the  dates  and  their  mutual  rela- 
tions. This  you  should  come  to  feel  an  indispensable  part  of 
any  intellectual  activity.  In  acquiring  the  habit  you  will  be 
aided  by  taking  systematic  notes  of  chronology,  often  adding 
to  them  and  rereading  them.  By  this  method,  with  no  special 
effort,  you  will  find  yourself  at  the  end  of  a  few  months  on 
much  firmer  ground. 

There  are  several  books  that  will  help  you,  both  in  learning 
useful  dates  and  in  grouping  together  dates  that  belong  to 
different  branches  of  history.  Among  others  are 

Putnam's  Handbook  of  Universal  History.   A  Series  of  Chrono- 
logical Tables.1 
DREYSS,  C.    Chronologic  universelle.2 

New  York,  1914.  2i6mo.   Hachette,  Paris,  1857. 


134  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

NICHOL,  J.    Tables  oj  European  History,  Literature  and  Art.1 
CIROT,  DUFOURCQ  and  THIRY.    Synchronismes  de  la  litterature 
fran$aise.2 

This  last  work,  serviceable  and  very  cleverly  arranged, 
is  a  valuable  implement.  Not  only  does  it  tabulate  in  columns 
all  important  dates  in  French  literature,  but  in  many  cases  it 
presents  in  parallel  columns  the  coincident  dates  of  political 
or  artistic  history. 

Nothing,  however,  can  take  the  place  of  chronological 
tables  made  by  yourself.  You  should  become  accustomed 
to  using  a  notebook  in  which,  allowing  a  page  or  half  a  page 
for  each  year  of  the  century  or  period  that  specially  interests 
you,  you  will  enter  in  their  proper  places  all  the  important 
dates  that  come  to  hand :  publications  of  books ;  births  and 
deaths ;  significant  events  in  the  biography  of  the  great  writ- 
ers; principal  facts  of  contemporary  history,  including  the 
history  of  art,  of  music,  or  of  foreign  literatures,  etc.  As 
from  time  to  time  you  read  these  notes  over,  you  will  quickly 
see,  first,  that  all  these  dates,  or  at  least  the  most  essential 
ones,  are  engraving  themselves  on  your  memory;  next,  that 
the  mere  bringing  together  of  dates  and  facts  is  surprisingly 
productive  of  general  ideas  and  interesting  suggestions. 

Remember  that  nothing  is  accepted  so  blindly  as  a  date, 
and  be  on  your  guard.  You  cannot  be  sure  of  the  correct- 
ness of  even  a  standard  work  where  dates  are  concerned. 
As  a  general  rule,  never  construct  a  theory,  never  sustain  an 
argument,  by  propping  it  up  with  any  date  you  have  not 
minutely  verified. 

18vo.   Glasgow,  1884. 

28vo.  Paris,  1894.  Good  Tableaux  chronologiques  are  to  be  found  at 
the  end  of  both  Lanson's  and  C.  M.  des  Granges's  Histoire  de  la  litterature 
franfaise. 


CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY          135 

Here  is  an  illustration  of  that  sort  of  danger.  I  do  not 
take  it  from  the  history  of  literature  but  from  the  history 
of  the  law.  There  exists  a  Roman  law,  the  Lex  Aquilia, 
dating  from  468  A.  u.  c.  It  happened  that  in  an  excellent 
French  manual  of  the  history  of  Roman  law — one  of  those 
' reliable'  books  that  every  student  consults  and  robs  con- 
tinually— by  a  typographical  error  408  was  printed  instead 
of  468.  As  dates  are  accepted  with  so  little  question,  this 
carelessness  on  the  compositor's  part  was  enough  to  establish 
a  kind  of  tradition.  A  respectable  number  of  theses  or  works 
on  law  can  be  found  which,  placidly  accepting  the  date  of 
408,  have  based  deductions  and  theories  thereon.1  Many 
works  on  the  history  of  literature  expose  you  to  similar  perils. 
Let  skepticism  and  suspicion  be  your  watchwords. 

II.  PROBLEMS  OF  CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY 

Chronology  is  as  important  for  the  study  of  literary  works 
as  it  is  for  the  history  of  government,  diplomacy,  or  law. 
Unluckily,  its  acquisition  is  not  a  simple  matter  of  memory 
and  effort  guided  by  caution — a  compiling  of  incontestable 
lists  of  dates,  with  each  great  literary  event  in  its  proper 
place.  On  the  contrary,  even  in  very  recent  literature  many 
dates  are  either  unknown,  doubtful,  or  traditionally  inexact. 
The  problems  that  arise  in  connection  with  these  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  as  follows: 

1.  To  fix  the  date  of  a  work.    Until  the  correct  date  of  a 
work  is  fixed,  it  obviously  cannot  be  given  its  true  place  in 
the  biography  of  the  author  and  in  the  literary  life  of  his  time. 

2.  To  fix  the  dates  of  the  various  parts  of  a  work.    If  a 
work  represents  several  years  of  reflection  and  labor,  the 

1  Example  cited  by  A.  Girard,  in  Revue  Internationale  de  I'enseignement, 
June  15,  1890,  p.  621. 


136  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

date  of  each  part  must  be  known  before  the  progress  of  the 
thought,  art,  intellectual  and  moral  life,  of  a  writer  can 
be  traced. 

TO  FIX  THE  DATE  OF  A  WORK 

1.  By  comparison  with  the  manuscript.    Frequently  the 
testimony  of  a  manuscript,  unknown  or  unnoticed  before, 
makes  it  possible  to  establish  an  exact  date  on  which  the 
printed  text  throws  no  light.    Verlaine's  famous  poem  Art 
po6tique, 

De  la  musique  avant  toute  chose, 
Et  pour  cela  prefere  1'Impair  .  .  ., 

appeared  in  1885  in  Jadis  et  naguere;  it  became  the  mani- 
festo of  the  "Ecole  symboliste."  E.  Dupuy,  after  a  study  of 
Verlaine's  manuscripts,  pointed  out1  that  Art  poetique  is 
one  of  a  collection  entitled  Cellulairement,  written  by  Ver- 
laine  while  in  prison  and  completed  in  August,  1874.  This 
fact,  had  it  been  known  to  A.  Barre  in  time,  might  perhaps 
have  led  him  to  give  a  less  positive  form  to  the  phrase  with 
which  he  begins  his  otherwise  excellent  thesis  Le  Symbo- 
lisme2:  uln  French  literature  the  symbolist  movement  dates 
from  1885." 

2.  By  historical  criticism  of  documents.    Take  a  work  as 
important  as  Corneille's  Polyeucte.    Until  a  few  years  ago 
the  exact  date  of  this  masterpiece  was  uncertain.   It  used 
erroneously  to  be  assigned  to  1640.    After  Marty-La veaux's 
edition  it  was  supposed — again  wrongly — to  belong  to  1643. 
E.  Rigal  has  now  proved3  that  Polyeucte  was  written  in  the 
winter  of  1641-1642. 

He  reaches  this  result  by  taking,  one  by  one,  the  facts  or 
the  documents  on  which  it  had  been  thought  justifiable  to 

1K  Etude  critique  sur  le  texte  d'un  manuscrit  de  P.  Verlaine,"  Revue  d'his- 

toire  litteraire,  1913,  pp.  489-516.    See  page  503.  2 Paris,  1912. 

3 "La  Date  de  Polyeucte,"  Revue  universitaire,  Vol.  II  (1911),  pp.  29-36. 


CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY          137 

base  the  chronology  of  Corneille's  plays,  and  by  demonstrat- 
ing that  these  data  are  either  uncertain  or  wrongly  con- 
strued. He  begins  by  eliminating  the  date  of  1640. 

a.  Horace  and  Cinna  already  belong  to  1640 — Cinna  to 
the  second  half  of  the  year;  it  is  not  likely  that  Corneille 
composed  three  great  tragedies  in  the  same  year.    (This  is 
simply  a  presumption,  not  a  certainty.) 

b.  Polyeucte  was  read  at  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet,  and 
gave  offense  there.    Now,  Corneille  had  no  connection  with 
the  Hotel  before  the  last  third  of  1641. 

Rigal  next  disposes  of  a  letter  from  an  obscure  "conseiller 
au  Parlement,"  C.  Sarrau,  addressed  to  Corneille,  Decem- 
ber 12,  1642  : 

Ut  valeas  tu  cum  tuis  Musis  scire  imprimis  desidero ;  et  utrum 
tribus  eximiis  et  divinis  tuis  dramatis  quartum  adjungere  medi- 
teris?  .  .  .  Inaudivi  nescio  quid  de  aliquo  poemate  sacro,  quod 
an  affectum  an  perfectum  sit,  quaeso,  rescribe. 

This  text  has  always  been  interpreted  as  meaning  that  after 
the  "three  exquisite  and  divine  dramas"  (Le  Cid,  Horace, 
Cinna)  the  " sacred  poem"  Polyeucte  was  to  make  a  fourth. 
In  that  case  it  would  be  necessary  to  place  Polyeucte  later 
than  December,  1642  ;  that  is,  in  1643. 

Rigal  contends  that  (i)  the  expression  "three  divine 
dramas"  does  not  necessarily  exclude  Polyeucte]  and  (2) 
that  the  words  "sacred  poem"  do  not  necessarily  allude  to 
it,  but  much  more  probably  to  one  of  the  religious  poems 
that  Corneille  wrote  at  all  periods  of  his  life. 

Finally,  a  hand-corrected  copy  of  the  Abbe  d'Aubignac's 
Pratique  du  theatre,1  long  overlooked,  bears  witness  that 
Richelieu,  who  died  in  1642,  knew  of  Polyeucte  and  disap- 
proved of  certain  scenes. 

1  Paris,  1657. 


138  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

If  you  add  the  fact  that  Corneille  was  in  Rouen  and  not 
in  Paris  at  the  beginning  of  July,  1641  (and,  therefore,  un- 
able to  oversee  the  staging  of  a  play),  you  will  notice  that, 
little  by  little,  owing  to  successive  criticisms  of  facts  and 
documents,  Polyeucte  has  been  inclosed  within  two  chrono- 
logical limits  —  the  autumn  of  1641  and  the  summer  of  I642.1 

3.  By  the  combined  study  of  manuscripts,  text,  and  ex- 
ternal documents.  A  typical  problem  is  that  of  the  date  of 
Helena,  a  poem  by  Alfred  de  Vigny.  What  are  the  facts,  and 
how  may  the  problem  be  stated  ? 

Helena  was  published  for  the  first  time  in  an  anonymous 
book  of  Poemes,  in  March,  1822.  It  disappeared  from  the 
Poemes  of  1829,  having  been  "juge  severement"  by  its  au- 
thor. It  was  not  reprinted  during  Vigny's  lifetime. 

A  note  from  the  Journal  d'un  poete,  published  by  L.  Ratis- 
bonne  in  1867,  after  Vigny's  death,  says,  u/7^«aisanessay 
written  at  nineteen  years  of  age",  which  would  be  in  1816. 
Now  as  early  as  1864,  in  a  famous  article,  Sainte-Beuve 
denied  the  accuracy  of  this  date  : 

Alfred  de  Vigny's  debut  in  literature  dates  from  1822.  With 
his  poem  Helena  he  paid  enthusiastic  tribute  to  the  cause  of  the 
Greeks;  at  the  same  time,  in  his  La  Dryade  and  Symetha,  he 
played  the  flute  to  the  tune  of  Andre  Chenier,  revived  and  brought 
into  prominence  in  the  last  few  years.2  The  real  date  of  these 
Neo-Greek  poems  of  M.  de  Vigny  is  that  of  their  publication,  and, 
for  the  historian  of  literature  who  cares  for  accuracy,  there  is  no 
occasion  to  accept  the  somewhat  arbitrary  dates  that  the  poet  has 
since  felt  impelled  to  assign  to  them.3 


H.  Carrington  Lancaster,  "The  Dates  of  Corneille's  Early  Plays," 
Modern  Language  Notes,  January,  1915,  pp.  1-5;  A.  L.  Stiefel,  Ueber  die 
Chronologic  von  Jean  Rotrou's  dramalischen  Werken  (Berlin),  and  in  Zeit- 
schrift  fur  franzosische  Sprache  und  Litteratur,  Vol.  XVI  (1894),  pp.  1-49; 
and  E.  Dannheisser,  "Zur  Chronologic  der  Dramen  Jean  de  Mairet's,"  Ro- 
manische  Forschungen,  1889.  2By  H.  de  Latouche's  edition  (1819). 

3Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  April  15,  1864. 


CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY          139 

In  the  last  few  years  the  question  has  been  taken  up  anew, 
discussed,  and,  I  believe,  very  nearly  decided.1  Let  us  see  now 
the  importance  of  the  question  and  the  methods  used  in  the 
discussion. 

A.  Importance  of  the  Question 

This  controversy  is  not  the  outcome  of  the  minute  and 
fruitless  curiosity  of  scholars.  Apart  from  the  interest  of 
placing  each  work  in  its  exact  position  in  the  evolution  of  a 
great  genius,  Vigny's  very  character  is  at  stake.  The  point 
to  be  decided  is  whether,  by  deliberately  changing  the  date, 
he  yielded  to  an  artist's  petty  desire  to  make  his  youthful 
genius  seem  more  isolated  and  precocious.  If  so,  his  memory 
is  tarnished  with  a  f white'  lie.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  poems 
really  belong  to  the  date  they  bear,  it  is  Sainte-Beuve  who 
must  be  accused, — who  must  be  blamed  for  having  through 
ill-advised  jealousy  formulated  a  hypothesis  so  detrimental 
to  the  reputation  of  a  great  poet. 

In  addition,  the  history  of  Andre  Chenier's  influence  and 
of  his  role  in  the  formation  of  the  Romanticists  of  the  first 
generation  is  involved  in  the  solution  of  this  question. 

B.  The  Discussion 

a.  "Helena"  dates  from  1816:  theory  of  Dupuy.  Dupuy 
supports  his  chronological  theory  by  three  kinds  of  argu- 
ment, as  follows : 

(i)  Arguments  deduced  from  historical  allusions.  Helena, 
according  to  Sainte-Beuve,  cannot  be  anterior  to  1821,  be- 
cause of  allusions  to  the  Greek  Rebellion,  which  did  not 
break  out  until  March,  1821.  Helena  ends  with  the  capture 

1  Besides  Sainte-Beuve's  article  (reissued  in  the  Nouveaux  Lundis,  Vol.  VI) 
see  E.  Dupuy,  "Les  Origines  litteraires  d'Alfred  de  Vigny,"  Revue  d'histoire 
litteraire,  1903,  pp.  373-412  (reissued  in  La  Jeunesse  des  romantiques,  1905) ; 
E.  Esteve, Helena,  critical  edition  (1907), Introduction;  P.  M.  Masson,  "L'ln- 
fluence  d'Andre  Chenier  sur  Alfred  de  Vigny,"  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire, 


140  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

of  Athens,  which  occurred  eight  months  later,  and,  therefore, 
must  be  posterior  to  this  event.  Dupuy  retorts  that  actual 
historical  events  were  not  Vigny's  inspiration,  since  the 
poem,  published  in  March,  1822,  contains  a  description  of 
the  taking  of  the  Acropolis,  June  30,  1822  :  we  should  have 
faith  in  the  poet's  imagination. 

(2)  Arguments  deduced  from  the  sources.   Faith  is  made 
easier  because  other  imaginative  works  that  depict  the  Greeks 
as  fighting  against  their  oppressors  were  written  before  182 1 : 
"Byron's  Turkish  Tales  and  his  lyric  outbursts  are  among 
these".   Dupuy  points  out  also  that  The  Siege  of  Corinth 
(1816)  certainly  influenced  Helena.  In  this  connection,  how- 
ever, he  makes  the  concession  that  in  1822,  just  before  send- 
ing it  to  press,  Vigny  very  likely  revised  it,  "so  as  to  touch 
up  the  coloring  and  perhaps  lengthen  the  plot". 

(3)  Arguments  deduced  from  other  facts  connected  with 
literary  history.    Dupuy  adds  that  it  was  not  in  1819  but 
toward  1828,  and  especially  in  1832,  that  Chenier,  little 
known  till  then,  really  conquered  the  generation  of  Roman- 
ticists.   Therefore  the  argument  drawn  from  Chenier's  in- 
fluence is  not  of  great  weight. 

b.  Helena  dates  from  1821:  theory  of  Esteve  and  Masson. 
To  the  arguments  of  Dupuy,  Esteve,  in  his  edition  of  the 
poem,  opposes  forceful  counterarguments. 

(i )  Vigny  calls  Helena  "an  essay  written  at  nineteen  years 
of  age",  but  this  is  a  hasty  note  of  little  weight  rather  than  a 
positive  assertion.  Besides,  as  the  entry  was  made  long  after 
the  event,  Vigny's  memory  may  have  been  at  fault.1 

1909,  pp.  1-48;  Vigny,  Poemes,  Baldensperger  edition  (Conard,  Paris,  1914) ; 
E.  Dupuy,  Vigny,  la  vie  et  I'aeuvre  (1913) ;  E.  Dupuy,  in  Revue  d'histoire  lit- 
teraire,  1915,  pp.  602-605. 

1  This  would  not  be  without  precedent.  Thus,  in  the  second  preface  to  the 
Poemes,  in  1829,  Vigny  says,  "When  these  poems  appeared  nine  years  ago.  .  ." 
Yet  the  collection  of  1822  had  been  published  not  nine,  but  seven,  year?  before ! 


CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY         141 

(2)  Esteve  does  not  believe  that  in  1816  Vigny  could  have 
"imagined"  the  development  of  the  Greek  insurrection  of 
March,  1821.  The  poem  gives  the  impression  of  having  been 
written  on  the  rebound  from  the  events  themselves.    It  is 
comprehensible  that  Shelley,  when  writing  Hellas  in  October, 
1821,  should  mention  the  capture  of  several  towns  that  sur- 
rendered some  months  later.    In  1821  Vigny  could  "foresee" 
the  fall  of  the  Acropolis,  Athens  being  already  three-quarters 
conquered;  but  in  1816  he  would  have  had  to  predict,  not 
the  capitulation  of  a  town  that  was  almost  taken,  but  the 
whole  insurrection. 

(3)  Byron's  influence  in  1816  is  not  sufficient  to  explain 
the  stand  taken  by  Vigny  in  the  Greek  question.    As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  at  that  date,  in  Chttde  Harold,  II,  and  the  first 
part  of  The  Giaour,  Byron  was  sympathetically  bemoaning 
the  hopeless  degeneration  of  the  Greeks.    How,  then,  is  it 
possible  to  suppose  that  a  young  French  lad,  hardly  out  of 
school,  could  have  not  merely  predicted  but  pictured  as  tri- 
umphant a  revolt  which  the  most  ardent  friends  of  the 
Greeks  could  not  foresee? 

(4)  Certain  definite  facts  strengthen  this  opinion.  Helena 
refers  to  the  famous  hymn  of  Rhigas,1  known  in  France 
through  Byron  only  in  1820 ;  to  the  heroic  death,  of  the  Suliote 
women,2  a  fact  learned  also  only  in  1820,  from  the  Voyage 
dans  la  Grece  by  Pouqueville;  to  the  abandonment  of  the 
town  of  Parga  by  its  inhabitants,3  on  May  10,  1819. 

(5)  Lastly,  Byron's  influence  seems  an  argument  against 
rather  than  for  the  theory  that  Helena  was  written  in  1816. 
The  poem  is  indeed  full  of  imitations,  many  of  which  are 
direct.    But  in  1816  Vigny  could  not  have  known  Byron 
thoroughly  enough  to  enable  us  to  explain  these  imitations. 
His  familiarity  with  the  English  poet  dates  no  farther  back 

!Bk.  I,  line  92,  2Bk.  II,  lines  406-414.  3Bk.  II,  line  396. 


142  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

than  the  translation  made  by  Pichot  in  1819-1820,  and  more 
particularly  from  the  article  and  extracts  contributed  to  the 
Lycie  jranqais  by  Bruguiere  de  Sorsum  in  August,  iSao.1 
Certain  lines  prove  beyond  a  doubt  that  Vigny  used  Pichot's 
translation.2  Therefore  Helena  could  not  have  been  written 
before  1821.  In  antedating  his  work  Vigny 's  motive  was  to 
pose  as  precursor  of  the  Philhellenic  movement  and  also  to 
repudiate  his  debt  to  Andre  Chenier. 

This  last  point  is  strongly  corroborated  by  an  article  of 
P.  M.  Masson  entitled  "L'Influence  d'Andre  Chenier  sur 
Alfred  de  Vigny."3  Masson  uses  most  precise  methods  in  his 
search  for  the  sources  of  Vigny.  He  brings  to  light  a  con- 
siderable number  of  details  borrowed  by  Vigny  from  Chenier, 
and  finds  it  impossible  to  explain  even  the  works  that  Vigny 
places  earlier  than  1819  except  on  the  assumption  of  a 
very  complete  knowledge  of  Chenier's  work  published  by 
Latouche  in  1819. 

c.  Helena  is  composed  of  elements  belonging  to  two  dif- 
ferent dates :  result  of  recent  investigations.  The  arguments 
presented  by  Esteve  and  Masson,  are,  in  my  opinion,  almost 
irrefutable.  Nevertheless,  Baldensperger,  when  publishing 
his  edition  of  Vigny's  poems,4  contributes  a  new  fact.  Au- 
thorized to  work  among  Vigny's  manuscripts,  he  detected 
that  the  preparatory  notes  of  Hdlena — the  first  material 
gathered  by  the  poet — were  written  in  the  same  hand  as  his 
earliest  papers,  "an  almost  childish  hand";5  and  concludes 
that  the  original  plan  and  idea  of  Helena  belong  certainly 
to  1816  or  before,  thus  confirming  the  date  given  by  Vigny. 

Besides,  by  an  internal  analysis,  he  shows  that  the  original 
idea  of  Helena  can  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for  without 

1For  details  see  another  contribution  by  Esteve,  Byron  et  le  romantisme 
fran^ais.  Paris,  1907.  2See  Book  II,  lines  47-52. 

3 Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1909,  pp.  1-48.  4i9i4-  BP-  285. 


CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY         143 

turning  either  to  Byron,  the  Greek  insurrection,  or  to  Chenier : 
the  subject  is  taken  from  Corneille's  Theodore]  the  orien- 
talism and  exotism  can  be  traced  to  Chateaubriand,  Ossian, 
the  Koran,  the  Psalms,  or  to  some  other  reading  of  Vigny's. 
There  is  in  the  poem  a  'first  layer'  dating  undoubtedly,  or 
very  probably,  from  1816  or  thereabouts.  Thus  the  idea  and 
the  elements  of  the  poem  may  very  well  go  back  to  the  time 
when  Vigny  was  nineteen  years  old. 

It  is  no  less  sure,  however,  that  the  poem  itself  did  not 
assume  its  definitive  form  until  after  the  events  of  1821,  and 
until  after  reading  Chenier.  Vigny,  following  his  accustomed 
method,  has  "touched  up  and  patched  up"  the  original  sketch 
in  many  places.  It  must,  therefore,  be  admitted  that,  in 
insisting  upon  1816  as  the  date  of  composition,  he  yielded  to 
the  temptation  to  deceive  his  readers,  as  Masson  puts  it,  by 
"un  geste  inelegant  et  malhabile". 

TO  FIX  THE  DATES  OF  THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  A  WORK 

The  problem  of  fixing  the  dates  of  the  various  parts  of  a 
work  may  be  presented  in  several  ways,  depending  upon 
whether  it  is  a  question  of  ( i )  the  date  of  a  work  composed 
of  fragments,  when  the  chronological  order  is  not  fixed  by 
the  author;  (2)  the  chronology  of  a  collection  when  the 
dates  are  not  correctly  or  completely  given  by  the  author; 
(3)  the  date  of  the  composition  of  different  parts  of  an  im- 
portant work  when  the  preparation  and  revision  extend  over 
a  long  period  of  the  author's  life. 

i .  Chronology  of  a  work  made  up  of  fragments.  A  typical 
example  of  a  fragmentary  work  is  the  Journal  d'un  poete  of 
Vigny,  published  after  his  death  by  Ratisbonne.1  The  Jour- 
nal is  a  document  of  capital  importance  for  the  study  of 
Vigny's  opinions,  philosophy,  and  art.  He  enters  at  random, 


t 

144  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

in  his  notes,  projects  for  poems,  reflections  on  his  reading  and 
on  incidents  in  the  political  and  literary  life  of  his  time,  and 
many  doleful  meditations  that  exhale  bitterness  and  pessi- 
mism. Hence  the  importance  of  an  exact  chronology  of  these 
fragments.  Ratisbonne's  edition,  however,  is  full  of  gross 
errors,  on  which  even  well-informed  critics  have  based  their 
conclusions  as  to  the  development  of  Vigny's  pessimism. 

In  a  very  good  article1  I.  Roney  undertakes  the  indis- 
pensable cleaning  up  and  attempts  to  reestablish  the  genuine 
dates  of  some  important  fragments  of  the  Journal.  His  ar- 
ticle is  interesting  as  an  example  of  method,  for  it  shows  us 
(i)  that  flagrant  errors  have  crept  into  works  as  recent  as 
the  Journal  d'un  poete ;  ( 2 )  that  this  minute  chronological 
verification  is  not  merely  the  whim  of  a  scholar  but  is  requi- 
site to  any  synthetic  reconstruction  of  the  evolution  of 
Vigny's  philosophy.  For  instance : 

a.  The  year  1824  of  the  Ratisbonne  edition  includes  frag- 
ments written  surely  as  late  as  1829,  since  in  them  Vigny 
alludes  to  a  play  produced  in  1829;  or  even  as  late  as  1832, 
since  they  mention  the  destruction  of  certain  poems  that  he 
burned  in  1832,  and  also  speak  of  his  revising  the  proofs  of 
Stello,  published  in  1832. 

b.  These  necessary  corrections  modify  to  a  great  extent 
our  views  on  the  origin  of  Vigny's  pessimism.    Obviously,  if 
already  in  1824,  at  the  threshold  of  his  intellectual  life,  we 
come  upon  dismal  thoughts  and  melancholy  reflections,  it  is 
easy  to  accept  the  opinion  that  Vigny  was  born  a  pessimist 
and  did  not  become  one.  Today,  however,  this  idea  no  longer 
seems  in  agreement  with  the  facts.2    Thus,  errors  in  chronol- 

1(1  Sur  quelques  erreurs  de  date  du  Journal  d'un  poete"  Revue  d'histoire 
litteraire,  1907,  pp.  17-39. 

2  See  particularly  E.  Dupuy,  La  Jeunesse  des  romantiques  and  Vigny,  la 
vie  et  I'oeuvre,  and  the  Introduction  and  commentaries  of  the  Baldensperger 
edition, 


CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY         145 

ogy  have  produced  others,  not  in  the  material  detail  of 
Vigny's  biography  but  in  the  historical,  psychological,  and 
moral  interpretation  of  his  personality. 

Roney's  contribution  is  a  concise  and  exact  application  of 
the  method  that  attempts  to  fix  the  chronology  of  a  work 
by  the  precise  examination  of  historical  or  biographical  allu- 
sions and  of  information  of  every  kind. 

2.  Chronology  of  the  various  pieces  in  a  collection?  Al- 
most all  the  large  collections  of  poetry — the  odes  of  Ronsard 
or  Malherbe  no  less  than  the  lyrics  of  Lamartine2  or  Hugo 
— consist  of  poems  written  at  different  periods  and  gathered 
into  one  volume.  Although  the  poet  himself  frequently  dates 
each  piece,  experience  teaches  that  the  modern  critic  should 
not  accept  these  records  without  suspicion  and  precaution. 

1  shall  dwell  at  some  length  upon  H.  Dupin's  "Etudes  sur 
la  chronologic  des  Contemplations"5  of  Victor  Hugo,  partly 
because,  as  the  work  of  a  student,  it  proves  that,  by  apply- 
ing sure  and  rigorous  processes  to  a  well-chosen  subject,  it  is 
possible  to  reach  successful  and  serviceable  results  without 
being  far  advanced  in  one's  career.    The  following  is  an 
abridged  description  of  its  object  and  method. 

xAs  the  contents  of  these  collections  often  change  from  one  edition  to  an- 
other, close  attention  should  be  paid  to  them.  This  implies  a  knowledge  of 
the  date  of  each  piece.  A  fine  example  of  such  work  is  P.  Laumonier,  Ron- 
sard, poete  lyrique  (Paris,  1910).  The  first  part  of  the  volume  is  devoted  to 
establishing  the  chronology  of  Ronsard's  Odes.  See  especially  pages  26-69 
for  a  model  of  scholarly  discussion.  I  do  not  dwell  particularly  upon  this  un- 
usually good  book,  because  it  is  striking  more  in  the  excellence  of  its  conclu- 
sions than  in  the  novelty  of  its  method. 

2  See,  in  the  Lanson  edition  of  the  Meditations,  the  arguments  on  the  exact 
date  of  the  composition  of  the  first  poems. 

8 Melanges  d'histoire  litteraire  (8vo),  pp.  41-107.  Published  under  the 
direction  of  Lanson,  Bibliotheque  de  1'Universite  de  Paris,  1906. 


146  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Elements  of  the  Problem 

The  dates  respectively  given  in  the  edition  and  in  the 
manuscript  disagree  for  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  poems 
out  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-eight.  As  the  contents  of 
the  book  represent  twenty-five  years  of  Victor  Hugo's  poetic 
activity,  an  exact  chronology  is  requisite  for  establishing  the 
true  evolution  of  his  ideas,  feelings,  and  style.  Moreover,  if 
he  altered  the  dates,  we  must  know  why:  perhaps  the  rea- 
sons may  disclose  some  traits  of  his  character  or  genius. 

Attempt  at  Solution 

Dupin,  having  put  aside  every  poem  on  which  manuscript 
and  edition  agree,  uses  three  different  methods  to  ascertain 
the  genuine  dates  of  the  others. 

a.  Critical  comparison  between  the  dates  in  the  manu- 
scripts and  those  in  the  edition.    First,  for  thirty  poems  the 
dates  found  in  the  edition  antedate  those  of  the  manuscripts, 
giving  different  years  but  the  same  month.    The  manuscripts 
are  certainly  correct  in  these  instances — that  is,  unless  the 
ridiculous  hypothesis  be  admitted  that  they  are  subsequent 
final  copies  made  each  time  by  chance  on  the  anniversaries 
of  the  months  when  the  poems  were  first  written ! 

Next,  it  is  obvious  that,  in  postdating  or  antedating  cer- 
tain other  pieces  in  the  edition,  Hugo,  having  written  them 
at  seasons  ill-suited  to  their  subjects,  wished  to  substitute 
more  appropriate  occasions. 

About  twenty  of  the  poems  are  dated  as  shown  in  the 
table  on  the  opposite  page. 

b.  Evolution  of  Hugo's  feeling  about  love.    In  studying 
the  diverse  forms  that  love  assumes  in  Victor  Hugo's  work, 
from  the  pure  gravity  of  the  Lettres  a  la  fiancee  to  the  sensu- 
ous gaiety  of  Les  Chansons  des  rues  et  des  bois,  Dupin  dis- 


CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY 


147 


POEM 

DATE  OF 
MANUSCRIPT 

DATE  OF  EDITION 

REASON 

II.  5.  xxiii:  "  Le  val- 
lon  ou  je  vais  tous  les 
jours  ..." 

December  17, 
1854 

April,  1855 

A  poem  full  of  spring- 
time, for  which  Decem- 
ber is  hardly  suitable. 

II.  6.  xxii:  "Ne  dites 
pas  :  mourir  ..." 

October,  1854 

Jour  des  morts, 
November, 
1854 

A  time  better  fitted  for 
meditation  on  death. 

II.  6.  xxvi  :  "  L'homme 
en  songeant  ..." 

October  1-13, 
1854 

1855 

This  poem,  like  several 
others,  voices  Hugo's 
philosophic  '  credo  '  at 
this  time.  He  places 
all  such  poems  in  1855 
or  in  January,  1856,  as 
if  written  on  the  eve  of 
publication. 

II.  4.  vi  :  "  Quand 
nous  habitions  tous 
ensemble  ..." 

October  16, 
1846 

Villequier, 
September  4, 
1844 

The  anniversary  of  his 
daughter's  death. 

II.  4.  xiv  :  "  Demain, 
des  1'aube  ..." 

October  4,  1847 

September  3, 
1847 

Eve  of  the  anniversary 
of  his  daughter's  death. 

tinguishes  three  phases:  1819-1823,  the  love  of  "one  soul 
for  another",  pure,  serious,  often  melancholy  and  "fatal"; 
1830-1840,  a  love  still  pure,  and  constantly  interspersed 
with  philosophical  reflections,  yet  showing  signs  of  contami- 
nation (his  inspiration  is  no  longer  "la  fiancee"  but  Juliette 
Drouet)  ;  1840-1865,  including  Les  Chansons,  the  love  is 
no  longer  an  actual  experience — it  is  the  ingenious  invention 
of  an  artist. 

Now,  the  love  poems  in  Les  Contemplations  naturally  fall 
into  two  groups,  of  which  one  belongs  with  the  poems  of  the 
period  1830-1840,  the  other  with  Les  Chansons.  The  dates 
of  about  fifteen  poems  are  thus  fixed,  and  in  favor  of  the 
manuscript. 


148  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

c.  Evolution  of  Hugo's  versification  from  1830  to  1854. 
By  means  of  exhaustive  statistics  bearing  upon  several  thou- 
sand lines,  Dupin  determines  for  different  epochs   (1830, 
1830-1835,  1835-1840,  1854)  the  proportion  of  lines  that 
are  cut  elsewhere  than  at  the  hemistich;   the  proportion 
of  the  different  coupes]   the  proportion  of  enjambements. 
Next  he  examines  the  poems  of  Les  Contemplations  and 
ranks  them  under  the  corresponding  headings.    In  this  way 
he  finds  the  dates  of  the  manuscript  usually  confirmed. 

d.  Evolution  of  Hugo's  style  from  1830  to  1854.    Dupin 
next  makes  an  experiment  similar  to  the  preceding  one  by 
studying  the  formation  of  Hugo's  images  and  metaphors: 
the  proportion  of  images  of  immense  size;  of  images  that 
are  sensations ;  of  animated  and  personified  objects ;  of  sym- 
bols, etc. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  these  last  two  methods  (statis- 
tics of  the  characteristics  of  versification  and  of  style)  are 
not  entirely  reliable.  There  is  no  real  determinism  or  autom- 
atism in  literary  production.  Still,  I  am  far  from  consider- 
ing these  processes  negligible,  provided  they  are  applied  with 
prudence  and  sense.  Obviously,  a  particular  coupe  occurring 
two  or  three  times  in  a  poem  is  not  enough  to  fix  the  date. 
But  if,  for  instance  in  a  piece  assigned  in  the  edition  to  1840, 
a  division  is  repeated  six  or  seven  times  that  is  absolutely 
unheard  of  in  Hugo's  versification  from  1835  to  1845  but  is 
found  in  five  or  six  per  cent  of  the  lines  belonging  to  1850- 
1855,  we  have  a  fairly  weighty  presumption.  In  such  a  case 
the  increase  or  decrease  of  the  characteristics  laid  bare 
by  the  statistical  method  gives  important  indications  as  to 
the  evolution  of  an  author's  processes  and  the  date  of  com- 
position. It  is  merely  an  elementary  precaution  not  to  at- 
tribute to  these  ' charts'  the  value  we  ascribe  to  the  'curves' 
obtained  by  a  like  scientific  observation. 


CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY         149 

In  conclusion  Dupin  draws  up  a  chronological  table  of 
Les  Contemplations  which  is  most  useful  for  the  study  and 
explanation  of  the  work.1 

3.  To  fix  the  date  of  the  different  parts  of  an  extended  or 
autobiographical  work.  For  every  work  that  has  been  pre- 
pared and  composed  during  many  years  of  the  author's  life, 
or  contains  autobiographical  and  personal  material,  it  is 
particularly  essential  to  give  each  section  its  exact  chrono- 
logical position,  for  each  is  a  part  of  the  portrait  the  author 
wished  to  leave  us.  This  is  true  of  Montaigne's  Essais, 
Rousseau's  Confessions,  Chateaubriand's  Memoires  d'outre- 
tombe,  Victor  Hugo's  La  Legende  des  siecles,  and  many  other 
important  works. 

An  excellent  illustration  is  the  way  in  which  Villey  has 
succeeded,  with  as  much  certainty  as  the  subject  permits,  in 
establishing  the  chronology  of  Montaigne's  Essais.  His  work 
fills  three  volumes:  Les  Sources  et  V evolution  des  ff Essais" 
de  Montaigne2  and  Les  Limes  d'histoire  moderne  utilises 
par  Montaigne? 

Importance  of  the  Question 

The  Essais  consist  of  three  books,  divided  into  chapters, 
some  very  long,  some  very  short,  written  by  Montaigne  be- 
tween 1572  and  1592  and  representing  without  any  logical 

1See  the  use  to  which  these  researches  are  put  in  an  article  by  P.  Berret, 
"Une  Methode  critique  pour  1'explication  des  Contemplations  a  propos  de 
leur  chronologic,"  Revue  universitaire,  Vol.  II  (1913),  pp.  48-57.  He  points 
out  that  the  printed  date  is  the  poetic  date  on  which  the  author,  inspired  by 
certain  events,  conceived  the  ideas  or  opinions  to  which  he  gave  literary  ex- 
pression ten  or  twenty  years  later;  the  date  of  the  manuscript  is  that  of 
composition  and  represents  a  certain  stage  in  Victor  Hugo's  artistic  develop- 
ment. In  a  critical  study  of  Les  Contemplations  both  these  dates  should  be 
taken  into  account  after  having  been  duly  verified. 

2In  2  vols.,  8vo.   Paris,  1908.  3In  i  vol.,  8vo.    1908. 


150  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

sequence  the  results  of  his  reading,  reflection,  and  personal 
thoughts.  The  problem  is  to  establish  the  exact  chronology 
of  this  intellectual  activity.  Thus  we  shall  avoid  "  falling 
into  the  traditional  error  of  mistaking  a  transient  opinion  for 
the  final  expression  of  his  personality,  and,  through  the  con- 
fusion of  dates,  of  introducing  contradiction  and  incoherence 
into  his  ideas".1  Furthermore,  we  shall  learn  how  his  inner 
life  has  developed. 

His  life  and  his  books  deposit  on  his  mind  successive  '  strata '  of 
experience.  From  each  stratum  he  attempts  to  learn  some  lesson, 
and,  each  time,  the  succeeding  stratum  shows  him  the  insufficiency 
of  his  ideas  and  raises  the  problem  again.  ...  It  is  this  romance 
of  an  intellect  that  fascinates  and  instructs  the  psychologist.  To 
trace  it  we  need  as  many  dates  as  possible.2 

First  Chronological  Data 

It  is  known,  before  any  detailed  research,  that  Montaigne 
withdrew  to  his  chateau  and  began  working  on  the  Essais  in 
1571 ;  that  Books  I  and  II  appeared  in  1580;  that  Book  III 
and  about  six  hundred  additions  came  out  in  1588 ;  that,  be- 
ginning in  1588,  correcting  and  enlarging  a  copy  of  the  1588 
edition,  Montaigne  was  preparing  a  new  edition,  which  his 
death,  on  September  13,  1592,  prevented  his  issuing.  We 
possess  this  copy  ('Exemplaire  de  Bordeaux').  It  served 
as  the  foundation  for  the  edition  published  in  1595  by 
M»e  de  Gournay. 

Up  to  this  point  it  is  evident  that  ninety-four  essays  are 
anterior  to  1580,  that  thirteen  were  written  between  1580 
and  1588,  and  that  the  additions  to  these  one  hundred  and 
seven  were  prepared  between  1588  and  September  13,  1592. 

Wol.  I,  p.  281.  2P.  282. 


CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY         151 

But  we  must  go  farther.  Each  group  must  be  taken  sepa- 
rately, and  an  attempt  made  to  place  chronologically  every 
essay  that  it  contains.1 

Processes  and  Methods  Employed 

In  order  to  assign  a  date  to  each  of  the  Essais,  Villey  re- 
sorts to  three  sources  of  information :  ( i )  allusions  to  precise 
facts  of  which  the  dates  are  known;  (2)  allusions  to  Mon- 
taigne's reading  whenever  it  is  possible  to  fix  the  date; 
(3)  possibility  of  dating  certain  essays  by  their  relation  to 
others.2 

a.  Allusions  to  precise  facts.  Villey  collects  every  allusion 
to  events  of  known  date.  He  reaches  results  that  vary  in 
certainty. 

(1)  Precise  date.    "Only  fifteen  days  ago",  says  Mon- 
taigne,3 "I  completed  my  thirty-ninth  year."   Therefore  the 
essay  was  written  March  15,  1572. 

(2)  Approximate  date.   Montaigne  speaks4  of  the  battle 
of  Lepanto  (October  7,  1571),  and  adds  that  "it  was  won  a 
few  months  ago  against  the  Turks".    Therefore  the  essay 
belongs  to  the  first  months  of  1572. 

(3)  Double  limit.    The  study  of  allusions  proves,  in  quite 
a  number  of  cases,  that  the  essay  could  have  been  written 

1  Villey  points  out  that  the  question  is  especially  important  for  the  period 
1571-1580.   After  1580  Montaigne  changes  less,  develops  less  definitely, — the 
genre  of  the  essay  is  established. 

2  Is  it  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  formidable  mass  of  reading  and 
erudition  represented  by  such  research?    A  minute  knowledge  of  sixteenth- 
century  history,  a  practically  exhaustive  perusal  of  everything  printed  before 
1592,  a  familiarity  with  all  the  works  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian  literature, 
not  only  through  their  texts  but  in  the  various  annotated  editions  published 
in  the  sixteenth  century, — this  is  what  Villey  has  acquired  and  accomplished. 
His  effort  will  appear  far  more  splendid,  and  his  example  more  inspiring  to 
our  young  workers,  if  they  know  that  he  has  been  blind  since  early  childhood. 

3I,  20.  4 1,  32. 


1 52  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

neither  anterior  to  a  certain  date  nor  posterior  to  another. 
It  is  thus  inclosed  between  two  chronological  limits. 

(4)  Single  limit.  Lastly,  several  chapters,  from  their  al- 
lusions, cannot  be  anterior  or  cannot  be  posterior  to  a  given 
date — nothing  more. 

In  these  last  two  instances,  (3)  and  (4),  the  approxima- 
tion arrived  at  through  the  allusions  may  be  narrowed  down 
by  other  sources  of  information. 

b.  Allusions  to  reading  whenever  it  is  possible  to  fix  the 
date.  As  to  Montaigne's  reading,  Villey's  researches  rest 
upon  the  following  facts : 

1 i )  We  have  in  our  possession  today  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  books  owned  by  Montaigne.    Several  bear  the  date  of 
reading,  and  precious  annotations  in  his  hand. 

(2)  Montaigne  made  great  use  of  his  books,  and  when  he 
borrowed  from  them  it  was  often  verbatim.   This  last  fact  is 
particularly  important  with  regard  to  ancient  authors  or 
translations.    Whenever  Villey  is  able  to  decide  which  six- 
teenth-century edition  Montaigne   used, — and  he  decides 
this  frequently, — he  knows  that  Montaigne  cannot  have 
borrowed  prior  to  the  publication  of  the  edition. 

(3)  We  learn  from  Montaigne  himself  that  the  books  he 
read  are  of  two  sorts.1    On  the  one  hand,  there  are  those  few 
that  he  makes  constant  use  of  (Virgil,  Horace,  Lucian,  Seneca, 
Amyot's  translation  of  Plutarch), — books  "that  it  would  be 
harder  to  dispense  with  than  any  others".    Borrowings  from 
these  books  occur  in  the  three  editions  and  are  of  slight  ac- 
count for  chronology.   On  the  other  hand,  there  are  the  books 
that  he  studied  for  a  time  and  then  allowed  to  sleep  in  peace 
in  his  library, — those,  he  says,  "that  I  want  to  use  only  once". 
On  these  he  "had  a  habit  of  recording  the  date  on  which  he 
finished  them,  and  his  judgment  of  them  as  a  whole". 


CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY         153 

These  various  indications  enable  Villey  to  reach  a  certain 
number  of  definite  conclusions.1  For  instance  : 

(1)  Julius  Ccesar.   The  library  at  Chantilly  contains  the 
copy  of  Caesar  read  by  Montaigne,  with  the  manuscript  note 
that  he  read  it  "from  February  25  to  July  21,  1578".   The 
essay2  entitled  "  Observations  sur  les  moyens  de  faire  la 
guerre  de  Julius  Caesar  "  includes  many  facts  borrowed  from 
the  Commentaries,  and  criticisms  directly  developed  from 
the  jottings  with  which  Montaigne  has  crowded  the  margins 
of  his  copy.  This  essay,  therefore,  dates  from  1578,  or  at  the 
latest  from  1579. 

(2)  Guicciardini.  Villey  begins  by  determining  every  pas- 
sage incontestably  borrowed  by  Montaigne. 

There  is  a  good  chance  that  all  these  passages  were  en- 
tered in  Montaigne's  pages  at  about  the  same  period  :  Guic- 
ciardini is  one  of  the  authors  whom  he  studied  "only  for  a 
time".  The  chapters  in  which  they  occur  must,  therefore, 
be  very  nearly  contemporaneous,  "forming  a  cluster". 

If  it  is  possible  to  date  one  of  these  chapters  by  means  of 
some  allusion  or  statement,  we  shall  learn  the  approximate 
date  of  the  whole  cluster. 

Now  in  the  chapter  "Des  Livres"  we  find  this  sentence: 
"Here  is  the  entry  that  I  wrote  in  my  Guicciardini  about  ten 
years  ago".  And  we  know,  by  other  means,  that  this  chap- 
ter belongs  to  1580. 

Therefore  the  six  essays  in  which  Montaigne  makes  use  of 
Guicciardini  were  probably  written  in  1571. 

c.  Essays  dated  from  their  relation  to  others.  On  the  one 
hand,  certain  essays  allude  to  others.  For  instance,  Mon- 
taigne, in  Book  II,  chap.  10,  mentions  that  "he  has  an  in- 


first  part  of  Villey's  book  (Vol.  I,  pp.  50-242)  is  given  up  to  estab- 
lishing the  chronology  of  Montaigne's  reading. 


154  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

tense  curiosity  to  become  acquainted  with  the  soul  and  the 
inmost  opinions  of  his  authors",  and  adds  that  "he  has  said 
this  elsewhere".  The  remark  is  found  in  chapter  31  of  the 
same  book,  which,  in  this  wise,  is  proved  to  have  been  written 
before  chapter  10. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  may  draw  conclusions  from  the 
relative  positions  of  the  different  essays  and  from  their 
character.  The  dates  that  are  conclusively  established  show 
how  frequently  essays  belonging  to  the  same  epoch  are  ar- 
ranged consecutively.  Without  believing  this  rule  infallible, 
we  may  take  for  granted  that  an  undated  essay  is  probably 
of  the  same  date  as  those  adjoining,  if  it  is  like  them  in  con- 
ception or  structure.  In  this  way  we  reach  not  a  certainty 
but,  in  many  cases,  a  plausible  presumption. 

Criticism  and  Limitations  of  this  Method 

With  fine  scientific  loyalty  Villey  himself  points  out  the 
objections  to  his  method  and  conclusions. 

(i)  To  chapters  written  long  before,  Montaigne,  on  com- 
pleting some  new  reading,  may  have  added  certain  passages. 
If  so,  the  reading  is  unavailing  in  dating  the  chapter. 

Answer.  First,  we  must  often  be  resigned  to  remain  in  doubt. 
Next,  many  essays  placed  by  this  means  belong  unmistakably  to 
the  beginning  of  Montaigne's  literary  activity  and  cannot  have 
been  composed  much  before  the  reading  in  question.  Finally,  a 
conclusion  should  be  thought  decisive  only  when  the  chapter  is 
built  round  the  reading,  or,  in  other  words,  when  the  reading  has 
obviously  been  the  occasion  not  of  ornamenting  nor  of  amplifying 
the  chapter  but  of  writing  it  as  a  whole. 

( 2  )  Several  years  after  reading  some  work  a  long-forgotten 
phrase  or  idea  may  have  recurred  to  Montaigne. 


CHRONOLOGY  IN  LITERARY  HISTORY          155 

Answer.  Apart  from  the  fact  that  this  is  not  characteristic  of  all 
that  we  know  of  Montaigne,  and  that  in  many  cases  it  is  sufficient 
to  place  the  essays  within  approximately  three  or  four  years, 
Villey  shields  himself  from  this  objection  by  taking  into  account 
only  such  passages  as  Montaigne  borrows  word  for  word — those 
that  imply  that  he  has  the  book  open  before  him,  and  never  those 
that  contain  more  or  less  inexact  reminiscences. 

(3)  It  is  arbitrary  to  decide  which  authors  Montaigne 
really  read  only  once.  In  spite  of  his  own  testimony,  he  may 
perfectly  well  have  turned  to  them  again  when  his  train  of 
thought  suggested  them. 

Answer.  This  objection  is  indeed  strong ;  but  it  may  be  avoided 
by  resting  the  demonstration,  as  far  as  possible,  upon  the  books 
for  which  we  can  incontestably  establish  the  date  of  reading  and 
by  rejecting  those  that  may  have  been  used  more  customarily  and 
permanently. 

"Therefore",  concludes  Villey,  "we  should  not  lose  sight 
for  a  single  instant  of  the  doubts  that  assail  us.  Neverthe- 
less, if  our  results  are  not  characterized  by  absolute  cer- 
tainty, they  reach  a  high  degree  of  probability"1 — and,  as 
far  as  that  goes,  the  results  are  considerable. 

Results 

The  conclusion  of  this  vast  investigation  is  the  establish- 
ment of  a  'Table  chronologique  des  Essais'  where  each  of 
the  one  hundred  and  seven  chapters  is  given  its  proper  place 
in  Montaigne's  life  and  in  the  growth  of  his  ideas.  This 
chart  is  completed  by  synoptical  tables  showing  the  connec- 
tion between  Montaigne's  reading  and  the  composition  of 
the  Essais. 

!P.  285. 


156  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

These  results  are  set  down  in  the  second  volume,  where 
Villey  examines  "L'Evolution  de  la  pensee  de  Montaigne," 
following,  epoch  by  epoch,  the  development  of  this  "romance 
of  an  intellect",  but  treading  now  on  firm  ground. 

This  last  instance1  illustrates  the  close  coordination  and 
dependence  between  the  work  of  general  synthesis  and  philo- 
sophical interpretation,  on  the  one  hand,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  these  patient,  thorough,  often  dry  researches  that  fur- 
nish material  for  the  former  and  are  their  essential  condition. 

1The  examples  studied  in  this  chapter  may  be  supplemented  by  many 
others,  in  particular  by  the  following:  P.  Laumonier,  Tableau  chronologique 
de  I'aeuvre  de  Ronsard  (1911);  P.  M.  Masson,  "Questions  de  chronologic 
rousseauiste,"  Annales  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau,  Vol.  IX,  p.  37;  E.  Rigal,  "Sur 
les  Contemplations  de  Hugo,"  Herrig's  Archiv,  Vol.  116  (1906),  p.  327;  F.  A. 
Blossom,  La  Composition  de  Salammbo  d'apres  la  correspondance  de  Flaubert, 
avec  un  essai  de  classement  chronologique  des  lettres  (Elliott  Monographs, 
No.  3)  (Baltimore,  1914). 


CHAPTER  VII 
PROBLEMS  OF  AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION 

Modern  literature  is  less  fertile  in  problems  of  authen- 
ticity and  attribution  than  are  the  literatures  of  antiquity  or 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  circumstances  attending  the  pub- 
lication of  most  of  the  important  works  are  known  beyond 
the  possibility  of  doubt  or  discussion.  If  anyone  were  to 
dispute  the  authenticity  of  Racine's  tragedies,  Balzac's 
novels,  or  Le  Genie  du  christianisme,  he  would  be  sub- 
jected to  the  sort  of  ridicule  that  greeted  the  paradoxical 
critic  who  wrote  a  book  to  prove  that  Napoleon  I  had 
never  existed. 

However,  such  problems  do  arise  even  for  relatively  recent 
works.1  Rabelais,  Montaigne,  Pascal,  Moliere,  Bossuet,  Vol- 
taire, Rousseau,  Diderot,  are  involved,  not  to  mention  a 
great  number  of  authors  of  memoirs  and  of  correspondence. 
Sometimes  it  is  a  question  of  ascertaining  whether  the  work 
handed  down  under  a  writer's  name  is  not  purely  and  simply 
an  imposture  (question  of  authenticity)  ;2  sometimes,  of  de- 
termining whether  a  work  until  now  accredited  to  a  certain 
author  should  not  be  reassigned  to  another  (question  of 
attribution).  In  the  last  few  years  these  questions  have 
many  times  been  asked  and  answered  in  regard  to  important 

1  For  example,  the  discussion  about  the  little  book  The  Young  Visiters,  by 
Daisy  Ashford,  with  a  preface  by  J.  M.  Barrie  (1919). 

2 By  way  of  introduction  to  the  subject,  read  the  chapter  "Critique  de 
provenance,"  in  Langlois  and  Seignobos,  Introduction  aux  etudes  historiques, 
pp.  66-78.  Some  curious  examples  of  falsification  are  found  in  E.  Bernheim, 
Lehrbuch  der  historischen  Methode,  pp.  204-256. 

'57 


158  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

works  of  French  literature.  The  best  lesson  in  method  is 
to  examine  the  elements  of  the  problems  and  the  processes 
employed  to  settle  them. 

I.   THE  AUTHENTICITY  OF  THE  PARADOXE  SUR  LE 

COMEDIEN  BY   DlDEROT 

We  have  in  the  question  of  the  Paradoxe  sur  le  comedien 
one  of  the  most  curious  among  these  problems  of  authen- 
ticity. Because  of  the  variety  of  the  arguments  hurled  into 
the  discussion,  because  of  the  psychological  elements  brought 
to  light  in  the  controversy,  and,  finally,  because  of  the  suc- 
cess of  strictly  critical  methods  in  arriving  at  the  truth,  this 
question  is  well  worth  a  detailed  analysis. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  QUESTION 

The  Paradoxe  sur  le  comedien  is  published  for  the  first 
time  in  1830 — forty-six  years  after  Diderot's  death  (1784) 
— by  the  Parisian  publisher  Sautelet,  from  a  copy  made  at 
St.  Petersburg  of  one  of  Diderot's  inedited  manuscripts.1 
Other  of  his  works  bought  by  Sautelet  (the  Correspondance 
avec  Mlle  Volland,  Le  Reve  de  d'Alembert,  etc.)  have  the 
same  origin.  Until  1902  the  little  work  is  reprinted  in  the 
various  editions  of  Diderot  without  exciting  any  doubt  as  to 
its  authenticity;  it  is  read,  admired,  spoken  of  as  a  gem. 
The  style  is  praised  as  brilliant  and  spirited.  Diderot  is 
recognized  in  all  his  glamor  of  new,  arresting  ideas,  orig- 
inality, and  wit. 

Now  in  one  of  those  picturesque  cubby-holes  that  line  the 
old  Paris  quays,  Ernest  Dupuy  has  the  good  fortune  to 
stumble  upon  a  thin  notebook,  which  is  nothing  else  than 

1  Diderot's  personal  library  was  bought  by  Catherine  II,  and  after  his 
death  his  unpublished  manuscripts  were  sold  to  her  by  his  daughter  Mme 
de  Vandeul. 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  159 

the  manuscript  of  the  Paradoxe  sur  le  comedien,  not  in 
Diderot's  hand  but  in  that  of  Naigeon,  his  friend,  client, 
quasi-assistant  and  secretary,  with  whom  Diderot,  on  his 
departure  for  Russia,  left  instructions  to  publish  his  inedited 
works  in  case  he  himself  should  die  on  the  journey. 

Up  to  this  point  everything  is  quite  natural ;  but  now  the 
trouble  begins.  "The  manuscript",  says  Dupuy,  "although 
very  neat  in  certain  spots,  in  others  is  covered  with  erasures 
and  with  words  written  in  above  the  text;  the  margins  of 
some  of  the  pages  are  almost  completely  filled  with  addi- 
tions to  the  original  version.  After  studying  the  manuscript 
closely,  I  was  convinced  that  I  had  before  me  a  revised  text 
by  Naigeon."  Indeed,  its  aspect  is  disquieting :  these  addi- 
tions, corrections,  and  alterations  in  the  detail  of  the  style 
and  expression  could  not  have  been  made  by  a  copyist.  It  is 
certainly  a  '  working-copy/  an  author's  manuscript, — and 
the  Paradoxe  sur  le  comedien,  hitherto  supposed  to  be  a  mas- 
terpiece by  Diderot,  appears  to  be  the  work  of  an  impostor. 

Not  entirely ;  for  the  Paradoxe  is  only  the  development  of 
an  article  published  by  Diderot  in  the  Correspondance  de 
Grimm,*  under  the  title  "Observations  de  M.  Diderot  sur 
une  brochure  intitulee  Garrick  ou  les  acteurs  anglais," — an 
article  incontestably  authentic.  Yet  everything  added  to  the 
Observations  in  composing  the  Paradoxe  must  be  Naigeon's ; 
of  the  Paradoxe,  says  Dupuy,  "the  greater  part  is  grossly  in- 
terpolated, the  remainder  as  lacking  in  taste  as  in  accuracy". 

Dupuy  exhibits  his  discovery  in  a  critical  edition  of  the 
Paradoxe,2  where,  in  parallel  columns,  he  gives  the  text  of 
the  Observations  and  the  text  of  the  Naigeon  manuscript. 
In  his  Introduction  he  indicates  the  sources  that  the  'inter- 

1  October  15,  1770. 

2  Diderot,  Paradoxe  sur  le  comedien,  critical  edition,  with  Introduction, 
Notes,  and  Facsimile,  by  E.  Dupuy,  8vo,  xxxiii  +179  pp.    Paris,  1902. 


160  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

polator'  has  drawn  from,  pointing  out  that  he  has  stolen 
from  Grimm,  Rousseau,  and  many  others — and  particularly 
from  Diderot  himself.  He  believes  he  has  discovered  that 
certain  of  these  additions  are  taken  from  works,  such  as 
De  I'art  de  la  comedie  by  Cailhava  or  the  Memoires  of 
Mil*  Clairon,  that  did  not  appear  until  after  Diderot's  death. 
Therefore  there  is  no  longer  room  for  doubt:  the  whole 
f  fabrication '  of  the  Paradoxe  is  disclosed  to  us ;  Naigeon  is 
caught  red-handed ;  and  the  Paradoxe,  that  masterpiece  by 
Diderot,  is  not  by  Diderot  and  is  not  a  masterpiece. 

THE  CONTROVERSY 

Immediately  great  agitation  and  excitement  prevail  in  the 
camp  of  scholars  and  men  of  letters.  During  the  next  few 
months  articles  for  and  against  appear  in  quick  succession. 
Certain  details  in  this  battle  are  both  instructive  and  amusing.1 

i.  First,  there  is  the  attitude  that  Bedier  calls  "provi- 
sional doubt".  This  attitude  Lanson  adopts  on  the  day  after 
Dupuy's  publication.  In  his  article  in  the  Revue  universi- 
taire  he  enumerates  the  reasons  for  agreeing  with  Dupuy's 
argument.  The  aspect  of  the  manuscript,  above  all,  is  dis- 
turbing. Still,  in  many  passages  that  Dupuy  assigns  to 

!The  essential  contributions  are  Lanson,  "Le  Probleme  des  oeuvres  post- 
humes  de  Diderot,"  Revue  universitaire,  May  15,  1902,  pp.  460-465;  and  arti- 
cles by  G.  Larroumet,  in  the  Temps,  September  i,  1902,  and  by  Faguet,  in  the 
Journal  des  debats,  September,  1902, — the  first  favorable  to  Dupuy's  theory, 
the  second  adverse  to  it.  In  the  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  July-September, 
1902,  articles  by  Brunei  (for  Dupuy) ;  M.  Tourneux  (against  Dupuy) ;  Dupuy 
(against  Tourneux);  Tourneux  (answering  Dupuy's  reply);  G.  Grappe,  "A 
propos  du  Paradoxe  snr  le  comedien,"  Revue  latine,  October  25,  1902  (against 
Dupuy) ;  E.  Faguet,  "Diderot  et  Naigeon,"  Revue  latine,  December  28,  1902 
(against  Dupuy) ;  A.  Aulard,  two  articles  in  the  Revolution  jran$aise,  Au- 
gust 14,  1902,  and  January  14,  1903  (favorable  to  Dupuy) ;  R.  Doumic,  "Les 
Manuscrits  de  Diderot,"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  October  15,  1902  (for 
Dupuy);  J.  Bedier,  "Le  Paradoxe  est-il  de  Diderot?"  in  fitudes  critiques, 
pp.  83-112. 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  161 

Naigeon,  Lanson  recognizes  the  ' touch'  and  the  art  of  Dide- 
rot. Moreover,  the  argument  based  on  the  fact  that  every- 
thing that  the  Paradoxe  adds  to  the  Observations  of  1770  is 
merely  Diderot  chopped  up  and  then  patched  together  may 
be  reversed;  as  we  know  that  Diderot  frequently  repeated 
and  copied  himself,  comparisons  with  his  other  works  might 
prove  the  authenticity  as  well  as  the  falsity  of  the  Paradoxe. 
However,  Dupuy  seems  to  have  established  with  certainty 
that  passages  have  been  borrowed  from  works  published 
after  Diderot's  death — a  very  strong  argument,  so  long  as 
it  cannot  be  proved  that  Diderot  may  have  been  acquainted 
with  them  before  their  publication.  "What  has  resulted", 
Lanson  concludes,  "is  our  inability  to  feel  confident  that  we 
are  reading  pure  Diderot  when  we  read  the  Paradoxe :  all  is 
doubt  and  suspicion." 

2.  Next,  there  is  the  camp  of  those  who  seem  to  say,  "I 
told  you  so ! " — those  who,  in  spite  of  the  general  admiration 
aroused  for  nearly  a  century  by  the  Paradoxe,  affirm  that  they 
always  have  thought  "something  was  the  matter  with  it". 
Larroumet  recalls  that  quite  a  while  before  he  spoke  dis- 
paragingly of  its  artistic  worth.    Another  says : 

This  celebrated  work  bristles  with  inaccuracies,  improprieties, 
incoherences,  which  strike  me  only  now  that  they  have  been  pointed 
out  to  me.  But,  in  truth,  I  have  always  considered  it  diffuse, 
tedious,  overrated,  and,  to  be  frank,  I  am  thankful  that  I  shall  no 
longer  have  to  blush  for  my  lukewarmness.1 

All  these  writers  accept  Dupuy's  theory  with  satisfaction 
and  do  not  hesitate  to  cross  the  Paradoxe  off  the  list  of 
Diderot's  works. 

3.  At  the  other  extreme  is  the  camp  of  the  "irreconcil- 
ables" — those  who,  whether  for  Diderot's  sake  or  for  Nai- 

1  Brunei,  in  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1902,  p.  500. 


1 62  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

geon's,  refuse  to  believe  in  the  fraud.  There  is  Tourneux, 
Diderot's  well-informed  and  discriminating  editor,  who  sets 
forth  his  arguments  in  the  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire.  Pass- 
ing in  review  the  history  of  Diderot's  manuscripts,  he  tries 
to  prove  that  the  process  of  borrowing  from  himself  is 
habitual  with  Diderot,  and  that  his  borrowing  from  books 
such  as  the  Memoires  of  Mme  de  Vandeul  or  of  Mlle  Clairon 
is  far  from  being  certain,  or,  if  so,  can  be  accounted  for. 
Finally,  in  order  to  ' explain'  the  famous  manuscript,  Tour- 
neux goes  so  far  as  to  suppose  that  Naigeon  made  a  copy 
duplicating  every  detail  of  Diderot's  manuscript,  putting  the 
additions  in  the  margins  and  reproducing  and  then  erasing 
the  passages  written  and  then  erased  by  Diderot  himself.  In 
short,  he  is  convinced  that  the  Paradoxe  belongs,  and  can 
belong  only,  to  Diderot. 

The  same  conclusion  is  reached  by  Grappe,  who  is  espe- 
cially desirous  to  rescue  the  memory  of  the  unfortunate 
Naigeon.  He  suggests  that  Naigeon  wrote  at  Diderot's  dic- 
tation, which  would  explain  the  aspect  of  the  incriminating 
manuscript. 

4.  The  quarrel  is  prolonged  by  an  article  by  Faguet.1  His 
fifty  pages  of  criticism,  common  sense,  and  prudent,  judi- 
cious reasoning,  full  of  wit  and  malice,  add  to  the  debate  a 
distinctive  contribution  of  arguments  from  taste — the  most 
delicate  and  unerring  taste.  In  literary  criticism  I  know  few 
cleverer  or  more  ingenious  pages. 

He  wishes,  as  he  says,  to  " filter"  the  whole  discussion, 
and  "to  classify  the  arguments  for  and  against  in  the  fol- 
lowing fashion:  (i)  arguments  from  fact;  (2)  arguments 
partly  from  fact,  partly  from  taste;  (3)  arguments  from 
taste".2 

iln  Revue  latine,  December  25,  1902. 
2  P.  706. 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  163 

Arguments  from  Fact 

First  argument.  The  condition  of  Naigeon's  manuscript. 
Tourneux's  hypothesis  does  not  hold.  The  idea  of  dictation 
is  far  from  probable.  The  manuscript  has  still  to  be  ex- 
plained. Dupuy's  position  is  very  strong. 

Second  argument.  "  The  Paradoxe  sur  le  comedien  abounds 
in  passages  borrowed  by  Diderot  from  several  of  his  own 
works.  'Proof  that  it  is  not  his',  cries  Dupuy.  ' Proof  that 
it  is  his',  cry  Tourneux  and,  with  less  assurance,  Lanson 
and  Brunei.  Ah!  Ah!  This  is  becoming  diverting."1  After 
discussing  this  argument  Faguet  concludes  that,  since  Nai- 
geon  as  well  as  Diderot  is  imbued  with  Diderot's  ideas  and 
writings,  the  fact  that  a  work  is  stuffed  full  of  Diderot  proves 
that  it  is  either  Diderot's  or  Naigeon's ;  if  the  question  is  to 
decide  between  the  two,  the  fact  proves  absolutely  nothing. 

Third  argument.  The  passages  taken  from  the  Memoires 
of  Mlle  Clairon  or  Mme  de  Vandeul — or  even  from  the 
Correspondance  of  Meister,  with  which  Diderot  is  not  ac- 
quainted. This  is  the  pivotal  point  of  Dupuy's  demonstra- 
tion. Here  Faguet,  after  a  detailed  examination,  reaches  the 
following  conclusion : 

Since  the  manuscript  sent  to  St.  Petersburg  in  1785  agrees 
with  the  Dupuy  manuscript,  it  is  clear  that  the  latter  was 
written  before  1785.  Therefore  borrowings  that  cannot  be 
explained  by  attributing  the  Paradoxe  to  Diderot  are  no  less 
inexplicable  if  it  is  attributed  to  Naigeon.  The  argument 
would  be  tenable  only  if  based  upon  a  passage  borrowed 
from  some  work  that  appeared  between  July  30,  1784  (death 
of  Diderot),  and  October,  1785  (date  of  sending  the  manu- 
script to  Russia),  by  an  author  personally  unknown  to  Dide- 
rot. Proof  of  such  a  passage  is  lacking. 

IP.  711. 


1 64  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Arguments  Partly  from  Fact,  Partly  from  Taste 

"Every  idea  contained  in  the  Paradoxe  is  already  in  the 
Observations",  says  one  of  the  partisans  of  Dupuy's  theory.1 
"The  Paradoxe  is  only  a  paraphrase  in  dialogue  form,  am- 
plified almost  exclusively  by  means  of  examples."  "That  is 
not  so",  Faguet  retorts.  By  a  close  analysis  of  the  ideas  in 
the  Paradoxe  he  shows  that  there  are  several  found  nowhere 
in  the  Observations — fresh,  interesting  ideas,  disproving  the 
statement  that  the  Paradoxe  is  simply  a  dilution  of  the 
former  writing. 

Next,  it  is  said  that  "the  Paradoxe  bristles  with  inaccu- 
racies and  carelessness  of  style".  "This  is  not  quite  exact", 
replies  Faguet.  Considering  one  by  one  every  criticism  of 
the  style,  he  points  out  that  some  of  the  inaccuracies  are  so 
slight  and  insignificant  as  not  to  justify  attributing  the  Para- 
doxe definitely  to  Naigeon;2  again,  that  there  are  no  more 
inaccuracies  in  the  Paradoxe  than  in  any  other  of  Diderot's 
writings,  which  statement  he  puts  to  the  test  by  opening  a 
volume  of  Diderot — as  he  assures  us — "quite  at  random". 
Inaccuracy  is  the  penalty  Diderot  pays  for  his  offhand,  im- 
provised style. 

Arguments  from  Taste 

There  would  be  no  need  to  appeal  to  arguments  from  taste, 
according  to  Faguet,  if  the  arguments  from  fact  were  con- 
clusive, but  they  are  not.  In  this  contingency  arguments 
from  taste  are  perfectly  legitimate.  He  uses  these  arguments 
in  two  ways: 

1  Brunei,  in  Revue  d'histoire  littiravre,  1902,  p.  501. 

2 Example:  "Diderot,  it  is  said,  would  never  have  written,  'une  portion 
de  votre  habilet6'.  It  is  not  good.  It  should  be  'une  part'.  But  to  affirm 
that  Diderot  was  incapable  of  using  portion  instead  of  part,  absolutely  incapa- 
ble of  using  portion  instead  of  part,  so  incapable  of  using  portion  instead  of 
part  that  a  work  containing  portion  instead  of  part  cannot  be  by  Diderot — 
that  seems  to  me  too  arbitrary."  (P.  720.) 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  165 

First,  by  means  of  examples  thoroughly  and  shrewdly 
criticized,  he  demonstrates  that  the  Paradoxe  is  neither  des- 
ultory nor  incoherent.  He  sees  in  the  free,  delightful  swing 
of  the  dialogue  Diderot's  mind  functioning  quite  character- 
istically ;  he  sees  him  turning  once  more  to  the  Observations, 
warming  up,  extracting  new  ideas,  and  arranging  them  not 
in  cold,  logical  array  but  in  their  natural,  vivid  sequence. 

Next,  he  shows  that  many  of  the  alterations  introduced 
into  the  text  of  the  Observations  by  the  Paradoxe  are  very 
happy  ones,  which  perceptibly  improve  the  text. 

Finally,  in  the  last  and  most  striking  pages  of  his  article, 
he  passes  judgment  on  the  Paradoxe  as  a  whole.  "They  in- 
sist", he  says,  "that  the  Paradoxe  is  so  badly  written,  is  so 
devoid  of  taste, — in  such  poor  taste!  Diderot's?  Never! 
Naigeon's?  No  difficulty  there!"  To  this  Faguet  retorts 
that  almost  invariably  the  Paradoxe  is  very  well  written  and 
full  of  taste  of  the  best  kind.  Still,  the  real  question  at  issue 
he  defines  as  whether  it  is  possible  that  Naigeon  wrote  it,— 
whether  Naigeon  was  capable  of  writing  it.  Then,  for  about 
fifteen  pages,  Faguet  quotes,  in  turn,  long  fragments  of  the 
Paradoxe  and  passages  from  Naigeon's  genuine  writings — 
the  sparkling,  sprightly,  witty,  brilliant  pages  of  the  Para- 
doxe and  the  insipid,  tame,  dull,  heavy  pages  of  Naigeon. 
Each  time  he  maliciously  adds :  "This  is  how  Naigeon  writes 
when  he  writes  the  Paradoxe" ;  "This  is  how  he  writes  when 
he  signs  himself  Jacques- Andre  Naigeon".  He  winds  up 
ironically : 

Thus  there  are  two  Naigeons:  one,  who  is  ridiculous  writing 
as  himself ;  the  other,  who  is  admirable  writing  as  Diderot.  The 
idea  of  producing  something  by  Diderot  exalts  him  to  such  a  de- 
gree that  he  is  transformed,  and  confers  upon  him,  in  their  perfec- 
tion, qualities  precisely  the  reverse  of  his  own.  This  is  a  very 
unusual  phenomenon ! 


1 66  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

In  conclusion,  Faguet  asserts  that 

a.  The  Paradoxe  is  not  by  Naigeon,  because  Naigeon  was 
incapable  of  writing  it. 

b.  The  Paradoxe  has  "Diderot"  stamped  on  almost  every 
line. 

c.  The  Paradoxe  is  by  Diderot,  or  by  someone  equally 
skillful,  possessed  of  his  ideas,  of  his  manner  of  exposition 
and  turn  of  phrase. 

d.  In  the  Paradoxe  what  is  of  doubtful  authorship  amounts 
to  about  three  pages  out  of  sixty. 

This  is  all  very  well.  But  the  manuscript?  "I  do  not 
try  to  explain  it",  says  Faguet:  "I  pause  before  it.  The 
arguments  pointing  to  Diderot  as  the  author  of  the  Paradoxe 
have  more  weight  with  me  than  those  based  upon  the  Nai- 
geon manuscript." 

This,  then,  is  where  Bedier  finds  the  question  when  in  his 
turn  he  undertakes  to  explain  the  famous  manuscript.  With- 
out recourse  to  history,  bibliography,  or  arguments  from 
style  or  taste,  he  is  going  to  probe  the  manuscript  for  its 
secret. 

"The  dispute  must  necessarily  centre  round  the  Naigeon 
manuscript",  says  Dupuy;  "that  is  the  crux  of  the  affair." 
Therefore  Bedier  concentrates  upon  it  his  attack,  using  for 
his  preliminary  study  only  the  six  pages  reproduced  by 
Dupuy  in  facsimile.  On  January  20,  1903,  in  his  seminary 
at  the  Ecole  normale  superieure,  he  examines  them  closely 
with  his  students.  His  examination  results  in  three  observa- 
tions and  a  hypothesis: 

First  observation.  Every  page  is  covered  with  erasures.  The 
document  looks  like  the  manuscript  of  an  author  who  has  had 
difficulty  in  expressing  his  thought.  But  in  the  frequent  additions 
in  the  margins  there  are  no  erasures.  "What  is  this  favorable 
influence  that  margins  exert  on  Naigeon's  talent  ?  " 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  167 

Second  observation.  There  are  many  corrections  or  additions 
written  in  over  the  text  between  the  lines  of  the  manuscript.  The 
lines  themselves  are,  therefore,  constantly  crossed  out,  but  the  cor- 
rections or  additions  between  the  lines  never  show  an  erasure.  If 
Naigeon  has  trouble  in  rinding  a  definitive  form  for  his  idea  while 
he  is  writing  on  the  line,  he  discovers  it  immediately  when  he 
begins  to  write  between  the  lines.  What  is  this  magical  effect  of 
interlines  ? 

Third  observation.  There  are  numbers  of  corrections  but  never 
any  repentirs;  that  is  to  say,  Naigeon  invariably  writes  a  com- 
plete word  or  sentence  before  he  corrects  it.  He  fills  his  sheet 
first  with  an  unbroken  text,  showing  no  indecision;  then  he 
scratches  out  certain  words  or  parts  of  sentences  and  between 
the  lines  substitutes  others,  which  also  run  off  his  pen  without 
the  least  hesitancy.  A  weird  and  almost  pathological  way  of 
working ! 

Thus  Naigeon  "is  revealed  to  us  as  a  writer  who  never 
decides  upon  a  correction  until  he  has  filled  out  his  line  to 
the  end;  who  is  often  dissatisfied  with  his  first  wording 
but  delighted  with  the  second;  and  whose  style  improves 
when  he  writes  on  the  margins".  How  can  these  marvels  be 
accounted  for  ?  By  a  very  simple  hypothesis. 

Hypothesis.  The  manuscript  is  not  the  work  of  an  author  but 
of  a  copyist. 

Naigeon  first  makes  a  copy  of  the  Paradoxe.  Later  he 
becomes  possessed  of  a  second  text  of  the  work,  revised  by 
Diderot.  "He  might  have  written  out  a  brand-new  copy  .  .  . 
[but]  he  notices  that  the  alterations  can  be  made  on  the  copy 
he  already  has  without  damaging  it  too  much.  To  save 
trouble  he  dispenses  with  rewriting  the  whole,  and,  minutely 
erasing  letter  by  letter  the  readings  that  Diderot  has  sacri 
need,  he  contents  himself  with  correcting." 


1 68  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Thus  everything  is  clear : 

"Why  should  Naigeon,  alone  among  writers,  never  correct 
in  the  lines  but  always  between  them?"  Because  the  lines 
represent  the  first  text;  the  additions  above  the  lines,  the 
second. 

"Why  should  Naigeon,  alone  among  writers,  never  correct 
himself  twice?"  Because  his  variations  represent  only  the 
second  form  of  the  text. 

"Why  should  Naigeon,  alone  among  writers,  never  correct 
the  marginal  additions  ?  "  Because  they  reproduce  the  read- 
ings of  the  second  text  that  were  too  long  to  fit  between 
the  lines. 

You  must  bear  in  mind  that  Bedier  forms  his  hypothesis 
solely  upon  the  six  pages  of  facsimile  in  Dupuy's  edition. 
Therefore,  in  forming  it,  he  makes  "a  triple  wager  that  never 
in  the  thirty  other  pages  of  the  manuscript  will  there  be 
found  (i)  an  erasure  in  the  margins;  (2)  a  double  correc- 
tion in  the  interlines;  (3)  a  repentir  that  may  not  and  should 
not  be  explained  as  an  accident  in  copying". 

Corroboration  of  the  hypothesis.  The  next  day,  January  21, 
Bedier  goes  to  the  Bibliotheque  nationale  to  see  the  manuscript, 
which  Dupuy  has  deposited  there.  What  answer  does  the  manu- 
script give  to  these  three  questions  ? 

1.  Are  there  erasures  in  the  marginal  additions? — Never. 

2.  Are  there  double  corrections  in  the  interlines? — Never. 

3.  Are  there  any  repentir s? — Never,  except  a  few  tiny  mis- 
takes that  can  be  only  slips  of  the  pen.1 

Moreover,  the  manuscript  strengthens  the  hypothesis  in 
an  unlooked-for  manner :  the  text  in  its  original  form  is  writ- 
es a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  one  repentir  or,  at  least,  a  correction  having 
the  appearance  of  one.  For  the  sake  of  brevity  I  have  not  reproduced  Bedier's 
discussion,  which  is  a  masterpiece  of  ingenuity  and  discernment.  For  the  de- 
tails, see  Etudes  critiques,  pp.  93-94  and  102-107. 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  169 

ten  from  beginning  to  end  with  the  same  ink;  everything 
inserted  above  the  lines,  and  all  the  marginal  additions,  are 
written  with  another,  paler,  more  diluted  ink. 

Conclusions.   The  conclusions  are  various  and  precise. 

1.  The  Dupuy  manuscript  furnishes  no  argument  that  casts  a 
doubt  on  the  authenticity  of  the  Paradoxe.    Bedier's  contribution 
leaves  things  just  where  they  were  before  its  discovery. 

2.  Diderot,  the  'improviser,'  could  on  occasions  remodel  the 
same  work  three  separate  times ;  here  he  has  been  caught  in  the 
full  swing  of  composition  and  revision. 

3.  Naigeon  is  reinstated  and  "amends   [are]   made  for  [his] 
having  been  considered  for  several  months  an  'audacious  hoaxer', 
an  'impudent  plagiarist',  and  a  'stupid  forger'".    His  reverence 
for  Diderot  and  his  probity  as  an  editor  are  made  evident. 

The  Paradoxe,  therefore,  is  restored  to  Diderot,  no  longer 
by  reason  of  disputable  impressions  as  to  style  but  by  a 
minute  and  exact  critical  process.  We  shall  see  that  in  many 
other  cases  the  means  of  proof  are  far  less  precise  and  that 
we  must  turn  almost  entirely  to  external  evidence.  But  the 
affair  of  the  Paradoxe  is  so  typical  an  example,  and  so  clearly 
brings  to  bear  every  argument  possible  to  employ  in  such  a 
quarrel,  that  it  deserves  analysis.1 

1  An  analogous  question  of  authenticity,  over  which  the  discussion  has  been 
prolonged  not  for  three  months  but  for  three  centuries,  is  that  of  Book  V 
of  Rabelais.  The  question  will  repay  a  careful  examination.  The  principal 
texts  with  which  to  begin  the  study  are  the  following: 

MARTY-LAVEATJX'S  edition  of  Les  (Euvres  de  Maistre  Frangois  Rabelais,  Vol.  IV, 

PP-  309-314.    1870-1903. 

BIRCH-HIESCHFELD.    Das  junfte  Buck  des  Pantagruel.    Leipzig,  1901. 
LEFRANC  and  BOULENGER.   L'Isle  Sonnante,  text  of  1562  (published  by  the  Societe 

des  etudes  rabelaisiennes)   (8vo).    Paris,  1906. 
TILLEY,  A.    "The  Authorship  of  the  Isle  Sonnante,"  Modern  Language  Review, 

1906-1907,  pp.  14  and  129;  and  many  other  contributions  found  in  the  Revue 

des  etudes  rabelaisiennes  or  in  the  Revue  du  seizieme  siecle. 
CONS,  L.    "Le  Probleme  du  Ve  livre  de  Pantagruel,"  Revue  bleue,  April  25,  1914? 

and  the  discussion  in  Revue  du  seizieme  siecle,  1914,  PP-  273  and  279. 


170  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

II.  PROBLEMS  OF  ATTRIBUTION  SOLVED  THROUGH 
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  EVIDENCE 

Problems  of  attribution  are  often  solved  by  means  of  an 
attentive  study  of  bibliographical  evidence.  In  these  cases 
it  is  hardly  possible  to  speak  of  method :  it  is  merely  a  ques- 
tion of  exactness  in  research,  of  minute  sifting  of  material, 
with  an  element  of  luck  sometimes  thrown  in  that  enables  us 
to  lay  our  hands  on  an  unnoticed  bibliographical  fact.  Such 
evidence  occurs  oftenest  in  connection  with  short  pieces — in 
prose  or  in  verse — that  make  part  of  a  collection.  Whether 
owing  to  the  error  of  a  copyist  or  the  negligence  of  an  editor, 
whether  from  ignorance  or  from  a  wish  to  deceive  the  reader, 
writings  are  introduced  under  an  author's  name  and  after- 
ward included  in  his  collected  works  until  such  time  as  the 
necessary  cleaning  up  shall  be  effected. 

This  process  is  carried  out  in  one  of  the  following  ways: 

1 .  Through  the  discovery  and  study  of  manuscripts  hitherto 
unknown  or  overlooked,  leading  to  the  definite  naming  of  the 
author  of  a  work  of  uncertain  origin. 

2.  Through  a  minute  comparison  of  editions,  leading  to 
the  recovery  of  the  forgotten  original  printing  of  the  piece 
that  is  handed  down  under  the  wrong  author's  name. 

3.  Through  a  close  scrutiny  of  the  collections  brought  out 
so  frequently  up  to  the  end  of  the  Romantic  period,  where 
many  short  writings,  especially  poems,  appear  before  being 
incorporated,  rightly  or  wrongly,  in  some  author's  works. 

4.  Through  a  search  in  correspondences,  memoirs,  literary 
or  critical  miscellanies,  in  which  many  small  works  see  the 
light  before  being  given  to  the  public. 

There  is  hardly  an  editor  of  the  literature  of  the  fifteenth, 
sixteenth,  or  seventeenth  century  who  has  not  had  to  make 
restitutions  by  one  of  these  means.  Kervyn  de  Lettenhove, 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  171 

when  publishing  the  (Eumes  de  Georges  Chastellain?  one  of 
the  fifteenth-century  rhetoriqueurs,  attributes  to  Chastellain 
certain  rondeaux  that  H.  Guy  returns  to  their  rightful  au- 
thors, Guillaume  de  Bissipat  and  Jean  Marot.2 

P.  Jannet  includes 3  in  his  edition  of  Marot's  works  a  poem 
called  Douleur  et  volupte,  which  Guiffrey's  edition  repro- 
duces4 among  the  pieces  "falsely  attributed  to  Marot",  with- 
out, however,  assigning  to  it  other  parentage.  Guiffrey  rests 
his  decisions  on  personal  impression.  He  feels  that  neither 
the  pure  Platonism  of  the  little  poem,  the  style,  nor  the 
meter  is  in  the  least  "marotique".  The  true  authorship  re- 
mains in  doubt  until  F.  Gohin  finds  in  the  Bibliotheque 
nationale  a  manuscript  of  the  poem,  under  the  title  Epistre 
d'un  amant  prisonnier  a  s'amye  par  la  Maison  Neufve.  Now 
"la  Maison  Neufve"  is  the  other  name  of  the  poet  Antoine 
Heroet,  whose  whole  work,  in  tone,  ideas,  and  workmanship, 
resembles  exactly  Douleur  et  volupte. 

Laumonier,  in  preparing  his  edition  of  the  (Eumes  of 
Ronsard,  has  to  set  many  things  to  rights.  The  sixth  volume5 
contains  a  group  of  poems  "attributed  to  Ronsard",  with 
notes  giving  the  principal  reasons  for  accepting  or  rejecting 
them.  Two  cases  deserve  special  mention:  the  Dithyram- 
bes,6  which  the  former  editors,  Blanchemain  and  Marty- 

aln  8  vols.,  8vo.    Bruxelles  (Vol.  VIII  in  1866). 

2Histoire  de  la  poesie  jranqaise  au  XV le  siecle  (8vo),  Vol.  I  (L'Acole  des 
rhetoriqueurs) ,  §40,  p.  30.  1910. 

3Vol.  I,  p.  117. 

4 Vol.  II,  p.  503.  Villey,  in  his  "Tableau  chronologique  des  publications 
de  Marot,"  Revue  du  seizieme  siecle,  1920,  pp.  46  and  206,  restores  to  Clement 
Marot,  by  the  same  kind  of  bibliographical  evidence,  several  poems  that  are 
really  his,  and  discards  others  that  have  been  wrongly  attributed  to  him. 
See  also  the  articles  by  J.  Plattard,  "De  Pauthenticite  de  quelques  poesies 
inedites  de  Clement  Marot,"  Revue  des  Etudes  rabelaisiennes,  1912,  p.  68,  and 
Bulletin  de  la  societe  de  I'histoire  du  protestantisme  franfais,  1912,  p.  278. 

5  Pp.  447  ff.   8vo.   Lemerre,  1914-1919. 

6Ibid.  pp.  182  ff. 


172  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Laveaux,  denying  to  Ronsard,  ascribe  to  Bertrand  Berger, 
and  Laumonier  restores  to  Ronsard ;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
three  sonnets  and  an  elegy  of  three  hundred  and  thirty  lines 
by  Amadis  Jamyn,  which  Blanchemain  and  Marty-Laveaux 
have  incorporated  in  Ronsard's  works.1  The  restitution  of 
the  first  two  sonnets  is  a  good  example  of  the  role  that  a 
minute  study  of  editions  can  play  in  these  questions  of 
attribution. 

III.    OPUSCULES  AND  FACTUMS  OF  PASCAL 

In  1657,  after  the  eighteenth  Provinciate,  Pascal  suddenly 
breaks  off  the  series  of  letters.  This  cessation  is  explained 
by  historians  to  their  own  entire  satisfaction — even  by  those 
most  familiar  with  the  heroic  period  of  Jansenism — on  one 
of  the  following  grounds:  Pascal  renounces  literary  glory; 
he  gives  in  to  the  prayers  of  the  friends  that  keep  preaching 
the  spirit  of  charity  to  him ;  he  has  heard  the  voice  of  God 
himself  in  the  miracle  of  the  Holy  Thorn,  etc. 

In  reality,  on  March  17,  1657,  the  Assembly  of  the  Clergy 
decrees  the  strict  enforcement  of  the  bull  of  Pope  Alexan- 
der VII  which  declares  open  war  and  no  quarter  on  Jansen- 
ism and  its  supporters  and  obliges  every  priest  to  sign  a 
formula  pledging  himself  to  adhere  to  the  formal  condemna- 
tion of  Jansen.  This  is  what  so  brusquely  stops  the  sequence 
of  the  Provinciates.  The  time  has  gone  by  for  discussing 
whether  or  not  the  Jansenists  are  heretics.  It  has  become  a 
question  of  transferring  the  struggle  from  the  theological  to 
the  judicial  field:  of  prevailing  upon  the  Parlement  to  re- 
fuse to  register  the  bull  on  the  plea  of  the  legal  nullity,  as 

1See  the  Introduction  of  Laumonier's  critical  edition  (Soci6t6  des  textes 
franqais  modernes,  1914),  p.  xiv,  and,  for  details  of  the  facts  and  arguments, 
his  article  "Trois  pieces  attribuees  a  Ronsard,  restituees  a  Amadis  Jamyn," 
Revue  d'histoire  Htte'raire,  1906,  pp.  112  ff. 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  173 

regards  France,  of  the  new  pontifical  act — "to  shield  the 
Jansenist  doctrine  behind  Gallican  liberties". 

At  this  crisis1  appears  the  Lettre  d'un  avocat  au  Parle- 
ment  a  un  de  ses  amis,  touchant  I' inquisition  que  I' on  veut 
etablir  en  France  a  I'occasion  de  la  nouvelle  bulle  du  Pape 
Alexandre  VII.  Who  wrote  it?  Lanson  discusses  and  estab- 
lishes the  authorship  in  an  article  in  the  Revue  d'histoire 
litteraire.2 

PREVIOUS  ATTRIBUTIONS 

Early  evidence  is  contradictory.  Nicole  is  said  to  have 
attributed  it  to  Pascal;  Perier  assigned  it  to  Antoine  Le 
Maitre.  Again,  in  a  manuscript  used  by  Faugere  for  his  edi- 
tion, the  Lettre  is  inserted  as  a  continuation  of  the  eighteen 
Promnciales.  To  sum  up,  the  attribution  was  uncertain,  but 
the  choice  lay  between  Pascal  and  Le  Maitre.  What  are  we 
to  think? 

INDICATIONS  GIVEN  BY  AN  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  PIECE 

1.  General  indications.    The  letter  is  full  of  canon  law, 
which  fact  points  to  the  lawyer  Le  Maitre  but  does  not 
exclude  Pascal,  who  shows  in  the  Promnciales  that  he  can 
make  a  fine  display  of  learning,  authorities,  and  references. 

2.  Particular  indications.    Lanson  first  irrefutably  estab- 
lishes that  two  pages,  at  least,  belong  to  Pascal.    He  dis- 
covers in  the  Pensees  some  notes  that  are  clearly  a  rough 
draft,  a  skeleton,  developed  in  the  Lettre.    Moreover,  in  the 
manuscript  of  the  Pensees  these  notes  are  crossed  off,  which 
with  Pascal  is  an  habitual  reminder  that  the  material  thus 
scored  has  been  used  elsewhere.  Comparisons  between  other 
pages  of  the  Lettre  and  notes  in  the  Pensees  prove  that  Pas- 
cal certainly  wrote  at  least  four  or  five  pages  of  the  work. 

ijune  i,  1657. 

2"Apres  les  Provinciates,"  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1901,  pp.  1-34. 


174  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

3.  Arguments  from  style  and  skill.  "  It  is  here,"  says  Lan- 
son,  "that  arguments  based  on  style  and  on  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  material,  which  are  valueless  when  they 
stand  alone,  may  reasonably  be  invoked.  ...  If  a  single 
page  is  by  Pascal,  the  entire  letter  is  by  him,  because  of  the 
perfect  unity  of  tone,  taste,  and  movement."  Lanson  is  to 
prove  this  by  a  detailed  analysis  of  the  artistic  processes 
used  in  the  letter. 

He  remarks  that  these  arguments  from  taste  have  here  a 
special  force,  for  it  is  a  question  not  of  fleeting  effects  but 
of  a  method  personal  to  Pascal,  which  his  friends  at  Port- 
Royal  could  never  have  employed.  If,  therefore,  in  addition 
to  the  indisputable  comparisons  mentioned  above,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  same  literary  and  artistic  processes  are  used 
throughout  the  Lettre,  its  attribution  to  Pascal  is  fairly  well 
assured. 

Now  the  Lettre  shows 

a.  Fictitious  characters  introduced  as  spokesmen  for  his 
arguments ; 

b.  The  irony,  so  familiar  in  Pascal,  so  foreign  to  the  staid 
gravity  of  the  Messieurs  of  Port- Royal ; 

c.  The  logic  of  his  opponent  used  to  reach  an  absurd  and 
revolting  conclusion ; 

d.  The  same  characteristics  of  style  as  in  the  Provin- 
ciales.1 

The  Lettre  d'un  avocat  can  thus  with  full  security  be 
assigned  to  Pascal. 

It  is  important  to  notice,  in  the  second  half  of  the  article, 
how  Lanson  applies  the  same  method  to  the  nine  Factums 

of  the  "Cures  de  Paris"  addressed  to  the  "Vicaires  gene- 

• 

xAn  argument  that  would  be  unconvincing,  according  to  Lanson,  if  it  were 
an  anonymous  work  that  was  being  assigned  to  Pascal,  but  one  that  has  value 
because  the  choice  lies  between  Le  Maitre  and  Pascal. 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  175 

raux"  against  the  Apologie  des  casuistes  by  the  Pere  Pirot.1 
The  authorship  of  the  Factums  had  been  long  disputed, — in 
fact,  since  the  seventeenth  century.  Some  said  that  these 
short  pamphlets  were  "the  work  of  Arnauld,  Nicole,  and 
Pascal";  others,  that  Pascal  wrote  the  second,  third,  and 
seventh;  Sainte-Beuve,  that  "Pascal  had  a  hand  in  all  of 
them" ;  still  others,  that  his  collaboration  was  limited  to  the 
fifth  and  sixth,  or  included  the  first. 

Lanson,  in  taking  up  the  question,  bases  his  discussion  on 
intrinsic  proofs.  First,  he  accumulates  comparisons  of  de- 
tail, which  show  that  Pascal  uses  material  from  the  Provin- 
ciates, from  the  Pensees,  or  from  various  notes;  next,  he 
searches  for  what  he  calls  those  "marks  of  authorship  that 
are  less  visible  and  depend  less  than  the  general  quality  of 
the  style  upon  the  individual  impressions  and  sensitiveness 
of  the  reader — favorite  processes  of  reasoning,  logical  treat- 
ment, method  of  proof";  finally,  he  draws  his  conclusion 
that  the  first,  second,  fifth,  and  sixth  Factums  are  by  Pascal 
and  should  have  a  place  in  editions  of  the  great  Jansenist's 
works.  This  short  study  is  a  model  of  rapid,  sound,  and 
convincing  discussion.2 

xAt  the  end  of  the  year  1657. 

2  Still  more  brilliant  is  Lanson's  demonstration,  in  the  French  Quarterly, 
January-March,  1920,  that  the  Discours  sur  les  passions  de  I'amour  is  by 
Pascal.  Without  going  into  details  here,  the  essential  point  that  he  makes  is 
this:  the  Discours  can  belong  only  to  Pascal,  because,  in  comparing  it  with 
the  Pensees,  similarities  are  found  between  it  and  the  text  that  the  editors  of 
the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  took  from  Pascal's  manuscript,  a  text 
unknown  in  the  seventeenth  century  except  to  Pascal  himself.  If  the  Discours 
were  the  work  of  some  imitator  of  Pascal,  it  would  resemble  the  text  of  the 
Port-Royal  edition ;  as  it  reproduces  words  and  phrases  not  discovered  before 
the  nineteenth  century,  its  attribution  to  Pascal  is  the  only  possible  solution. 
This  solution  displeases  certains  divots  of  Pascal,  and  it  is  indeed  amusing  to 
see  them  setting  forth  arguments  of  mere  'feeling'  which,  of  course,  do  not 
hold  against  well-established  facts. 


1 76  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

IV.  PROBLEM  OF  THE  ATTRIBUTION  OF  THE  DISCOURS 

DE  LA  SERVITUDE  VOLONTAIRE 

Is  the  Discours  de  la  servitude  volontaire — also  known 
as  the  Contr'un — written  wholly  or  partly  by  Montaigne's 
friend  La  Boetie,  or  is  it  not  ?  If  he  did  not  write  any  of  it, 
who  is  the  author  ?  If  he  wrote  only  a  part,  who  is  respon- 
sible for  the  additions  and  alterations?  May  it  be  Mon- 
taigne himself?  This  is  the  problem  raised  by  a  recent 
polemic.1 

STATEMENT  OF  THE  QUESTION 

The  facts  are  as  follows : 

1.  Etienne  de  la  Boetie  dies  in  1563,  leaving  his  books  and 
papers  to  Montaigne. 

2.  In  1571  Montaigne  publishes  the  (Euvres  diver ses  of 
La  Boetie,  not  including  in  this  edition,  however,  the  Dis- 
cours de  la  servitude  volontaire.   He  explains  that  he  does 
not  give  the  book  to  the  public  because  he  finds  its  "fagon 

1  The  principal  documents  of  the  controversy  are  as  follows :  The  offensive 
is  taken  by  Dr.  Armaingaud,  "Montaigne  et  La  Boetie,"  Revue  politique  et  par- 
lementaire,  Vol.  XLVII  (March,  1906) ,  p.  499,  and  Vol.  XLVIII  (May,  1906) , 
p.  322.  The  replies  come  thick  and  fast:  P.  Villey,  in  Revue  d'histoire  littiraire, 
1906,  p.  727;  P.  Bonnefon,  in  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1906,  p.  737,  and  in 
Revue  politique  et  parlementaire,  Vol.  LI  (1907),  p.  107;  Strowski,  "A  pro- 
pos  de  Montaigne,"  Revue  philomathique  de  Bordeaux  et  du  sud-ouest,  1907, 
p.  59  ("Montaigne  et  1'action  politique"),  with  a  rejoinder  by  Dr.  Armain- 
gaud, "Le  Discours  de  la  servitude  volontaire,"  same  volume,  pp.  193  and 
303 ;  R.  Dezeimeris,  "  Sur  1'objectif  reel  du  Discours  d'Etienne  de  la  Boetie," 
Actes  de  I'Academie  de  Bordeaux,  1907,  with  a  reply  by  Dr.  Armaingaud, 
"Le  Tyran  du  Discours  de  la  servitude  volontaire  est-il  Charles  VI?"  in  Revue 
philomathique  de  Bordeaux  et  du  sud-ouest,  1907,  p.  547.  Also  an  article  by 
Barckhausen,  "  A  propos  du  Contr'un,"  Revue  historique  de  Bordeaux,  March- 
April,  1909,  and  a  book  by  J.  Barrere,  Etienne  de  la  Boetie  contre  Nicolas 
Machiavel  (Bordeaux,  1908).  Dr.  Armaingaud  gathers  most  of  his  articles, 
more  or  less  revised,  into  one  volume,  Montaigne  pamphletaire :  L'Enigme  du 
Contr'un  (8vo)  (Paris,  1910). 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  177 

trop  delicate  et  mignarde  pour  1'abandonner  au  grossier  et 
pesant  air  d'une  si  mal  plaisante  saison".1 

3.  In  1574  the  Reveille^matin  des  jranqais  et  de  leurs  voi- 
sins,  a  Protestant  polemic  of  extreme  violence  and  brutality, 
prints  long  passages  in  Latin  and  in  French  from  the  Discours. 

4.  In  1576,  thirteen  years  after  La  Boetie's  death,  appears 
the  Memoires  de  I'Estat  de  la  France  sous  Charles  le  Neu- 
fiesme,  containing  in  the  third  volume,  complete  but  still 
anonymous,  the  Discours  de  la  servitude  volontaire. 

5.  In  1580  Montaigne  publishes  the  first  edition  of  the 
Essais.    The  chapter  "De  1'amitie"2  is  a  touching  and  im- 
mortal tribute  to  the  tender  affection  that  united  him  and 
La  Boetie.  At  the  beginning  of  the  chapter  Montaigne  speaks 
of  his  intention  to  print  in  that  very  place  the  Discours  de 
la  servitude  volontaire,  usi  gentil  et  tout  plein  de  ce  qu'il  est 
possible".   However,  after  writing  his  admirable  pages  on 
friendship,  when  on  the  point  of  adding  the  text  of  the 
Discours  he  changes  his  mind  and  declares  point-blank  that 
he  is  not  going  to  print  it : 

Parce  que  j'ai  trouve  que  cet  ouvrage  a  depuis  ete  mis  en  lu- 
miere,  et  a  mauvaise  fin,  par  ceux  qui  cherchent  a  troubler  et 
changer  Petat  de  notre  police  sans  se  soucier  s'ils  1'amenderont, 
qu'ils  Font  mele  a  d'autres  ecrits  de  leur  farine,  je  me  suis  dedit 
de  le  loger  ici. 

Here  we  have  Montaigne  about  to  print  the  manuscript  and 
then  abandoning  his  purpose;  protesting  against  the  pub- 
lished text  and  the  use  it  has  been  put  to,  yet  not  attempting 
to  counteract  the  effect  by  releasing  the  correct  version; 
finally,  keeping  his  own  counsel  as  to  how  a  copy  fell  into 
Protestant  hands. 

^'Avertissement  au  lecteur,"  August  10,  1570.  2I,  27. 


1 78  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Such  are  the  historical  data.  Until  1906  the  Discours  or 
Contr'un  is  reprinted  without  question  both  among  La 
Boetie's  works  and  separately  under  his  name.  But  in  1906 
a  revolutionary  theory  is  advanced,  defended  with  learning 
and  eloquence,  and  the  battle  begins. 

THEORY  OF  DR.  ARMAINGAUD 

The  theory  abruptly  brought  forward  by  Dr.  Armaingaud 
may  be  summarized  thus : 

1.  It  is  an  error  to  believe,  as  has  always  been  believed, 
that  the  Contr'un  is  simply  a  rhetorical  exercise,  an  eloquent 
declamation  against  tyrants  in  general,  which  the  Protestants 
take  possession  of  because  they  can  apply  it  more  or  less 
aptly  to  the  Catholic  king,  their  natural  enemy. 

2.  It  is  an  error  to  suppose,  with  the  historian  De  Thou, 
that  the  Contr'un  is  a  controversial  paper  written  by  La 
Boetie  against  Montmorency  and  Henri  II  on  the  occasion 
of  the  revolt  of  the  Bordelais  in  1548. 

3.  The  truth  is  that  the  Contr'un  is  a  political  pamphlet 
explainable   only   if   it   is   considered   as   directed   against 
Henri  III,  king  of  Poland  in  1573,  king  of  France  in  1574. 

4.  Therefore  the  most  important  pages  of  the  Contr'un 
cannot  be  the  work  of  La  Boetie  (this  is  the  negative  side 
of  the  thesis). 

5.  The  alterations  in  the  text,  the  inflammatory  additions 
to  La  Boetie's  vague  schoolboy  eloquence,  are  the  work  of 
Montaigne  himself  (this  statement,  subversive  of  every  tra- 
dition, is  the  positive  side  of  the  thesis). 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  QUESTION 

Is  it  necessary  to  dwell  upon  the  importance  of  the  ques- 
tion? If  this  daring  thesis  can  be  justified,  all  our  ideas  of 
La  Boetie  and  of  Montaigne  must  be  revised.  La  Boetie 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  179 

must  be  stripped  of  his  chief  claim  to  glory, — the  pages  that 
have  found  an  echo  in  France  whenever  the  people  have 
made  a  stand  for  liberty  against  an  increasingly  tyrannical 
autocracy. 

Worse  than  this,  Montaigne's  image,  the  product  of  three 
centuries,  must  ruthlessly  be  effaced.  We  have  thought  of 
him,  not  as  indifferent  to  truth,  but  as  possessing  a  slightly 
skeptical  and  detached  wariness  which  held  him  aloof,  un- 
scathed by  the  fray ;  respectful  to  the  established  government 
and  to  the  State  religion ;  not  antipathetic  to  the  persecuted 
Protestants,  but  hostile  to  the  idea  of  taking  part  in  the  fight. 
Now  we  discover  him  actively  involved  in  the  political  and 
religious  struggles  of  his  time,  aggressive  and  in  fighting 
mood,  indignant  at  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  vio- 
lently aroused  against  the  "tyrant"  and  ready  to  proclaim 
his  contempt, — to  incite  the  people  of  France  to  revolt,  if 
not  to  regicide. 

Our  idea  of  Montaigne's  personal  character  as  well  is 
hopelessly  upset.  The  delightful  chapter  on  friendship, — 
"Je  1'aimois  parce  que  c'etait  lui,  parce  que  c'etoit  moy", — 
filled  with  a  charm  so  touching  that  few  read  it  without 
tears,  cloaks  one  of  the  basest  acts  that  a  writer  can  commit. 
If  Dr.  Armaingaud's  theory  is  correct,  Montaigne,  with  craft 
and  dissimulation,  charges  to  the  account  of  a  friend,  for 
whom  he  professes  the  warmest  and  most  delicate  affection, 
passages  that  he  himself  has  written,  and  that  at  the  time 
cannot  help  injuring  his  friend's  reputation.  He  combines 
deceit  with  baseness. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  the  excitement  caused  by  such 
hypotheses,  the  violence  with  which  Montaigne's  friends  con- 
tradict and  fight  them.  Let  us  see  how  Dr.  Armaingaud 
presents  and  sustains  his  position. 


i8o  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

ARGUMENT  OF  DR.  ARMAINGAUD 

The  negative  part  of  the  thesis  consists  in  proving  that 
the  allusions  contained  in  the  Contr'un  apply,  and  can  apply 
only,  to  Henri  III.  To  this  end  Dr.  Armaingaud  chooses 
first  the  important  and  celebrated  passage  of  the  Discours  in 
which  La  Boetie  describes  the  tyrant: 

Voir  un  nombre  infini  .  .  .  souffrir  les  paillardises,  les  cruautez, 
non  pas  d'une  armee,  .  .  .  mais  d'un  seul,  non  pas  d'un  Hercules 
ni  d'un  Samson,  mais  d'un  seul  hommeau,  et  le  plus  souvent  du 
plus  lasche  et  du  plus  femelin  de  la  nation :  non  pas  accoustume  a 
la  poudre  des  batailles,  mais  encore  a  grand  peine  au  sable  des 
tournois";  non  pas  qui  puisse  par  force  commander  aux  hommes, 
mais  tout  empesche  de  servir  vilement  a  la  moindre  femmelette. 

This  portrait  suggests  to  him  a  remark  and  a  question: 
It  is  far  too  detailed  to  be  a  portrait  of  the  traditional  tyrant. 
If  it  is  the  portrait  of  an  individual,  whose  portrait  is  it? 

It  cannot  be,  as  De  Thou  will  have  it,  an  allusion  to 
Henri  II,  a  cruel  but  brave  prince,  a  gallant  knight,  intrepid 
in  tournaments,  who  by  his  amours  with  Diane  de  Poitiers 
and  others  gives  the  lie  to  the  last  trait  mentioned  by  La 
Boetie.  However,  "there  is  a  Valois  in  whose  character  all 
these  blemishes  are  found — Henri  III".1  Hereafter  Dr. 
Armaingaud,  in  his  efforts  to  prove  that  every  important 
allusion  can  refer  only  to  Henri  III  and  to  his  reign,  finds 
two  fields  of  investigation  open  to  him : 

1.  "An  analysis  of  the  qualifications  by  which  the  author 
characterizes  his  tyrant,  and  a  comparison  between  them 
and  the  well-known  moral  and  physical  traits  of  the  Due 
d'Anjou,  later  Henri  III."1 

2 .  An  application  of  the  same  method  to  the  deeds,  events, 
and  policies  that  the  tyrant  is  responsible  for. 

iRevue  politique  et  parlementaire,  Vol.  XLVII,  p.  504. 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  181 

This  task  Dr.  Armaingaud  undertakes  equipped  with  a 
sound  knowledge  of  history.  At  the  end  of  his  long  pages 
of  proof,  the  details  of  which  it  is  useless  to  reproduce  here, 
he  is  satisfied  that  he  has  established  his  thesis. 

Up  to  this  point,  in  the  negative  part  of  the  thesis,  Dr. 
Armaingaud  applies  only  the  entirely  natural  method  of 
historical  allusions.1  In  establishing  his  positive  thesis  that 
every  passage  denied  to  La  Boetie  must  be  attributed  to 
Montaigne,  he  uses  in  succession  three  sorts  of  arguments: 

a.  Arguments  of  psychological  probability  drawn  from 
the  conditions  of  the  publication  of  the  "Contr'un"    Dr.  Ar- 
maingaud finds  Montaigne's  attitude  suspicious  and  his  sin- 
cerity open  to  doubt.   Montaigne  is  La  Boetie's  heir,  the 
trustee  of  his  thought.   He  denies  having  had  anything  to 
do  with  publishing  the  Contr'un ;  but  can  he  implicate  him- 
self without  danger  of  death  ?    His  testimony  is,  then,  value- 
less ;  his  volte-face  in  the  course  of  the  chapter  on  friendship 
is  disquieting.    Besides,  argues  Dr.  Armaingaud,  no  one  else 
alludes  to  the  Discours  until  1574,  no  one  except  Montaigne 
knows  of  its  existence,  no  one  possesses  the  text;  if,  there- 
fore, the  text  is  given  to  the  Protestants,  who  can  have  given 
it  to  them  ?    If  it  contains  incendiary  passages  that  La  Boetie 
cannot  have  written,  who  if  not  Montaigne  can  have  written 
them? 

b.  Arguments  of  psychological  probability  drawn  from 
Montaigne's  political  attitude.  Dr.  Armaingaud  attempts  to 
place  the  personal  character  and  political  record  of  Montaigne 
in  such  a  light  that  what  La  Boetie  cannot  have  written  in  the 
Contr'un  only  Montaigne  can  have  added.    The  latter  is  in 
Paris,  after  the  peace  of  Saint-Germain,  from  August,  1570, 

1  He  does  add  one  appeal  to  reason :  The  Discours,  as  De  Thou  says,  vio- 
lently roused  its  contemporaries.  Would  this  be  possible  for  a  writing  that 
dealt  with  the  preceding  reign,  with  events  of  sixteen  years  before  ? 


1 82  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

to  March,  1571 ;  at  court  he  finds  tolerance  in  the  air;  he 
is  ready  to  accept  honors,  perhaps  a  place  in  the  government. 
Then  suddenly  he  leaves  the  court  and  Paris  for  the  soli- 
tude of  his  chateau  in  the  heart  of  Perigord.  Why?  Is  it 
not  because  he  foresees  the  end  of  this  tolerant  policy, 
the  approaching  triumph  of  the  fanaticism  of  Catherine  de 
Medicis?  In  1572  the  Saint-Barthelemy,  and  the  terrible 
massacres  of  Bordeaux  and  of  Guyenne  almost  under  his 
chateau  windows,  are  sinister  justifications  of  his  move. 

Again,  what  at  this  date  are  Montaigne's  affiliations  ?  Who 
are  his  associates?  Protestants  or  'tolerants.'  Dr.  Armain- 
gaud  carefully  makes  out  a  list  with  descriptive  details. 

Now  at  this  moment  (as  Dr.  Armaingaud  explains)  the 
Protestants  are  pulling  themselves  together,  multiplying  their 
appeals  against  tyranny.  The  Contr'un,  one  of  their  appeals, 
— a  polemical  treatise  against  the  reigning  tyrant, — appears 
anonymously  when  Montaigne,  sole  possessor  of  the  text,  is 
precisely  in  the  frame  of  mind  to  write  such  a  paper.  What 
follows  if  not  that  Montaigne,  sick  at  heart,  rebellious,  sym- 
pathizing with  the  vanquished,  takes  the  occasion  to  publish 
La  Boetie's  dissertation  touched  up  to  further  the  desired 
end  ?  In  this  way  he  can  without  too  much  risk  express  his 
feelings  and  serve  the  cause  that  is  secretly  dear  to  him,  "mais 
jusqu'au  feu  exclusivement,  si  je  puis",  as  he  liked  to  say. 

c.  Arguments  taken  from  Montaigne's  personal  attitude. 
Dr.  Armaingaud  believes  that  Montaigne  gives  us  good  rea- 
son to  doubt  his  veracity. 

(1)  Montaigne  tells  us  some  fine  tales  about  his  ancient 
lineage,  and  certain  episodes  of  his  travels  in  Italy. 

(2)  He  contradicts  himself  as  to  La  Boetie:  he  first  says 
that  he  composed  the  Contr'un  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  but 
later  he  corrects  this  to  sixteen. 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  183 

(3)  The  very  way  in  which  Montaigne  announces  that 
he  is  going  to  publish  the  Discours  de  la  servitude  volontaire, 
and  then  that  he  has  changed  his  mind  and  is  not  going  to 
publish  it,  is  "an  evident,  intentional  contradiction  implying 
lack  of  sincerity". 

(4)  If  it  is  true  that  the  Contr'un  has  been  published  "a 
mauvaise  fin",  and  that  the  work  is  of  a  sort  "a  troubler  et 
changer  Petat  de  notre  police",  Montaigne  finds  himself  in 
the  following  dilemma :  if  at  any  time  during  the  ten  years 
from  1571  to  1580  he  intended  to  publish  the  Discours  in  his 
book,  it  can  have  been  only  "a  mauvaise  fin"  and  in  order  to 
cause  a  disturbance ;  if  he  had  no  such  intention,  he  deceives 
us  by  saying  that  he  had  and  that  he  renounced  it  later. 

Finally,  if  the  text  of  the  Discours  has  been  mixed  with 
"autre  farine,  altere,  falsifie",  Montaigne's  plain  duty  is,  by 
publishing  the  genuine  text,  to  reestablish  the  facts.  By  not 
publishing  it  he  defames  the  character  of  La  Boetie,  and  out 
of  this  discreet,  respectful  magistrate  of  the  established  order 
he  makes  the  revolutionary  that  posterity  has  thought  him. 

GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS  OF  DR.  ARMAINGAUD 

1.  The  essential  parts  of  the  Contr'un  are  not  by  La 
Boetie. 

2 .  That  Montaigne  has  an  understanding  with  the  Protes- 
tant editors  of  the  Contr'un  is  evident — not  that  he  adopts 
the  new  religion,  but  that,  after  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew, touched  by  "the  unhappy  and  desperate  cause",  ill- 
content  to  "look  on  with  an  ironical  smile",  he  actively  enters 
the  political  arena. 

3.  Montaigne  rewrites  the  Contr'un  to  make  sure  that 
La  Boetie  says  nothing  that  he  does  not  want  him  to  say. 


1 84  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

THE  COUNTERATTACK 

Such  a  theory  is  bound  to  stir  up  vehement  opposition, 
which  comes  without  delay.  I  need  not  go  into  details  here. 
What  interests  us  especially  is  not  the  contents  of  these  ar- 
ticles but  the  methods  we  find  in  them ;  it  is  on  this  aspect 
only  that  I  shall  dwell. 

i .  The  reply  of  P.  Bonnejon.  The  adversaries  of  Dr.  Ar- 
maingaud  naturally  attack  each  half  of  his  thesis  separately, 
in  order  to  prove,  first,  that  the  Contr'un  is  not  aimed  at 
Henri  III,  and,  next,  that  Montaigne  cannot  be  held  re- 
sponsible for  the  additions  and  alterations  imputed  to  him. 
Bonnefon  replies  to  Dr.  Armaingaud  with  the  following 
arguments : 

a.  No  established  fact  justifies  the  affirmation  that  the 
tyrant  in  the  Contr'un  is  Henri  III  rather  than  any  other 
contemporary  prince — rather  than  the  traditional  tyrant. 
Dr.  Armaingaud,  becoming  hypnotized  by  certain  tempting 
resemblances,  wants  to  twist  everything  to  fit  his  hypothesis. 
Doubtless  the  Discours,  infected  with  the  general  tone  of  the 
collections  in  which  it  has  been  published,  has  been  open  to 
interpretations  and  in  places  takes  on  a  precise  and  specific 
sense;  it  is  possible  to  read  into  its  lofty  pages  an  appeal 
against  the  power  of  the  Valois ;  but  it  must  be  proved  that 
these  pages  can  be  aimed  at  Henri  III  only,  that  they  refer  to 
events  posterior  to  1574  only.  This,  according  to  Bonnefon, 
Dr.  Armaingaud  does  not  do.    He  confuses  possible  applica- 
tions of  the  text  to  certain  historical  events  with  indisputable 
allusions  to  these  events.  « 

b.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  passages  against  the  tyrant 
seem  on  close  analysis  like  a  rhetorical  exercise  conforming 
exactly  to  school  traditions;  the  famous  sentence  supposed 
to  describe  Henri  III  is  nothing  but  a  long  balancing  of 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  185 

antitheses,  where  each  clause  suggests  another.  The  literary 
analysis  of  the  text,  if  carried  out  without  prejudice,  goes 
against  Dr.  Armaingaud's  thesis. 

c.  If  the  Protestants  add  the  Contr'un  to  their  literature, 
it  is  as  a  piece  of  polemic  against  tyranny  in  general.    They 
rearrange  and  elaborate  the  text  but  slightly  here  and  there. 
If  they  wished,  and  if  Montaigne  wished,  to  make   the 
Contr'un  a  deliberate  attack  against  a  given  person,  they 
would  not  fail  to  accumulate  definite  grievances,  allusions 
clear  enough  to  be  understood  by  everyone ;  it  is  not  effective 
propaganda  to  make  allusions  so  vague  that  it  is  neces- 
sary  to  wait  three  hundred  years — until   the   coming  of 
Dr.  Armaingaud — to  discover  in  them  open  attacks  on  the 
king  of  France  then  on  the  throne !    Probability,  logical  and 
psychological,  is  against  Dr.  Armaingaud's  thesis. 

d.  Nor  is  strict  chronology  favorable  to  him.    He  con- 
tinually mentions  the  Contr'un  as  a  work  published  "in 
1574  and  1576", — which,  broadly  speaking,  is  true.  But  we 
know  definitely  through  other  channels  that  the  Reveille- 
matin,  containing  the  famous  sentence  about  the  tyrant,  the 
corner-stone  of  Dr.  Armaingaud's  entire  argument,  is  printed 
before  March  22,   1574.     Thus  every  allusion  must  pass 
muster  not  only  for  Henri  III  but  for  the  Due  d'Anjou,  as  he 
is  known  before  that  date, — and  such  is  not  the  case.  Before 
March,  1574,  the  Huguenots  do  not  show  any  special  hatred 
for  the  Due  d'Anjou,  who  has  not  yet  mounted  the  "tyrant's" 
throne;    on  the  contrary,  they  base  their  hopes  on  him. 
Chronology  is,  therefore,  against  Dr.  Armaingaud's  thesis. 

e.  Montaigne's  contradictory  statements,  his  volte-face, 
which  seem  so  suspicious  to  Dr.  Armaingaud,  remain  to  be 
explained.   In  the  collection  of  La  Boetie's  (Euvres  that 
Montaigne  publishes  he  is  reluctant  to  include  the  Contr'un, 
whose  dangerous  nature  he  recognizes;  he  intends  to  join  it 


1 86  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

to  the  beautiful  chapter  consecrated  to  the  memory  of  his 
friend  and  withholds  both  chapter  and  manuscript  until  the 
first  volume  of  the  Essais  shall  be  published.  This  day  comes 
(1580);  but,  as  the  Contr'un  has  already  been  printed  by 
the  Protestants,  Montaigne,  vexed,  refuses  to  harbor  it  in 
his  book.  The  chapter,  however,  is  already  written  and  well 
written ;  the  plan  of  it  pleases  him ;  and  so  he  leaves  it  just 
as  it  is,  explaining  in  a  few  additional  lines  why  he  does  not 
keep  his  promise.  In  the  Essais  there  are  other  instances  of 
this  practice;  there  is  no  need  to  look  for  diabolical  or 
Machiavellian  intentions.  "The  text",  as  Bonnefon  wisely 
remarks,  "makes  perfectly  good  sense  without  distortion; 
the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  stick  to  it,  and  not  to  search  too 
curiously  for  all  sorts  of  cabalistic  meanings.  Sometimes  we 
are  tricked  through  fear  of  being  tricked." 

2.  The  reply  of  Villey.  To  these  common-sense  and  schol- 
arly arguments  Villey1  adds  others  of  even  greater  force, 
which  once  more  show  his  fine  critical  sense.  He  aptly  de- 
fines the  attitude  of  mind  of  scholars  who,  like  Dr.  Armain- 
gaud,  have  but  "one  idea":  "They  accumulate  a  mass  of 
insignificant  facts  which,  crystallizing  round  their  ruling 
idea,  give  it  apparent  solidity."  This  is  an  excellent  sugges- 
tion of  method. 

Like  a  clever  lawyer,  Villey,  in  the  statement  of  his  thesis, 
makes  all  possible  concessions  to  his  adversary : 

Either  La  Boetie's  text  has  not  suffered  glaring  corruption,  or 
else  Montaigne  is  the  author  of  the  interpolations  or  a  party  to 
them.  Let  us  accept  the  latter  concjusion :  if  indeed  there  are  in 
the  Contr'un  important  additions  directed  against  Henri  III, 
Montaigne  is  responsible.  But  it  is  just  this  first  point  that  has 
not  been  established:  nothing  shows  that  La  Boetie's  text  has 
been  fundamentally  altered,  metamorphosed  by  the  first  editors. 

1  Revue  d'histoire  litttraire,  1906,  pp.  727-736. 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  187 

a.  Criticism  of  the  allusions.   Villey  begins  by  attacking 
the  point  that  Dr.  Armaingaud  finds  most  striking  :   "non 
pas  qui  puisse  par  force  commander  aux  hommes,  mais  tout 
empesche  de  servir  vilement  a  la  moindre  femmelette".   No 
one  but  Henri  III,  according  to  Dr.  Armaingaud,  can  be  in- 
tended; on  this  assumption  he  builds  his  proof.    "The  lan- 
guage of  the  sixteenth  century",  Villey  replies,  "leads  the 
most  wary  into  temptation";  Dr.  Armaingaud,  yielding  to 
the  temptation,  has  mistranslated.  Empesche  de  does  not 
mean  "incapable  of",  but  "engrossed  by",  "absorbed  in"; 
other  examples  prove  this.    The  question  is  settled,  however, 
by  the  Latin  translation,  published  simultaneously  with  the 
text :  "qui  impudicae  mulierculae  servitio  totus  addictus  sit". 
Thus  Henri  III  is  eliminated;   the  argument  built  on  the 
supposed  allusion  is  unsupported.     Dr.  Armaingaud  next 
ransacks  the  character  of  Henri  III  for  every  other  feature 
of  the  portrait;  doubtless  with  diligence  some  of  them  can 
be  found,  but  all  are  found  with  equal  or  greater  certainty 
in  the  traditional  idea  of  the  tyrant.   The  real  sources  of  the 
Contr'un  are  not  the  life  or  the  reign  of  Henri  III :  they  are 
Rome,  Greece,  the  Orient. 

One  by  one,  Villey  discusses  the  different  allusions  tracked 
down  by  Dr.  Armaingaud,  showing  either  that  they  do  not 
tally  with  history  or  that  they  would  have  been  unintelli- 
gible to  the  public — which  in  a  polemical  pamphlet  is  un- 
heard-of. Since  all  portraits  of  tyrants  are  alike,  it  is  possible 
for  the  Protestants  of  1573  to  appropriate  La  Boe  tie's  Dis- 
cours.  "But  we  must  not  conclude  that,  because  it  is  ap- 
plicable to  one  epoch,  it  is  inspired  by  the  events  of  that 
epoch.  The  multiplicity  of  the  possible  allusions  proves  that 
there  is  no  precise  allusion  to  be  found." 

b.  Uncertainty  of  its  attribution  to  Montaigne.   To  de- 
molish Dr.  Armaingaud's  second  position  Villey  uses  methods 


1 88  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

of  great  interest,  founded  upon  a  detailed  comparison  of  the 
language  and  the  habitual  processes  of  Montaigne  with  those 
of  the  author  of  the  Contr'un.  Villey  proceeds  as  follows : 

(1)  When  Montaigne  quotes  Plutarch,  whether  or  not  verba- 
tim, he  uses  Amyot's  translation ;  when  the  author  of  the  Contr'un 
quotes  Plutarch,  which  he  does  frequently,  he  never  uses  Amyot. 

(2)  When  Montaigne  cites  the  Latin  poets  he  gives  the  exact 
Latin  text:   he  never  translates;   above  all,  he  could  not  have 
brought  himself  to  translate  into  verse,  for  he  cannot,  as  he  says, 
"se  souffrir  en  vers".  In  a  parallel  case  the  author  of  the  Contr'un 
translates  into  French  verse. 

(3)  Montaigne  preserves  the  Latin  form  of  ancient  proper 
names:  he  writes  "Darius",  "Caecilius",  "Pyrrhus",  "Tacitus" 
or  "Cornelius  Tacitus";  "he  does  so  on  principle".    The  author 
of  the  Contr'un  follows  an  exactly  opposite  principle:  he  writes 
"Daire",  "Cecile",  "Pyrrhe",  "Tacite". 

Dr.  Armaingaud  has  the  "impression"  that  the  Contr'un 
is  written  in  the  same  style  as  the  Essais.  Villey  does  not 
claim  that  his  counterarguments  are  "absolutely  decisive"; 
"nevertheless",  he  says,  "placed  in  the  opposite  balance,  I 
think  they  outweigh  the  argument  that  Dr.  Armaingaud 
bases  on  a  very  subjective  impression".  To  me  they  seem 
to  sink  the  scales  unhesitatingly. 

I  should  be  sorry  not  to  quote  here  the  last  lines  of 
Villey's  article,  in  which  he  puts  us  on  our  guard,  for  deli- 
cate questions  like  these,  against  brilliant  but  precipitate 
hypotheses,  and  daring  but  ruinous  conclusions. 

If,  with  all  his  learning,  Dr.  Armaingaud  has  been  able  to 
advance  so  far  without  encountering  a  single  obstacle  that  shat- 
ters his  ill-founded  hypothesis,  do  we  realize  with  what  circum- 
spection we  should  test  the  ground  we  build  on,  and  make  sure 
of  our  corner-stones?1 

1  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1906,  p.  736. 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  189 

I  shall  break  off  my  account  of  this  endless  polemic  at 
what  I  believe  to  be  the  victory  of  the  Bonnefon-Villey 
party.  The  dispute  spreads  over  more  than  three  years, 
without  contributing  anything  really  new,  without  having 
recourse  to  any  method  that  deserves  careful  consideration.1 

V.  METHODS  IN  QUESTIONS  OF  AUTHENTICITY  AND 
ATTRIBUTION 

How  shall  we  define  and  classify  the  methods  and  proc- 
esses that  we  have  seen  operating  in  the  solution  of  these 
widely  different  problems?  "The  instinctive  tendency  of  the 
human  mind  is  to  pin  its  faith  to  any  existing  sign  of  author- 
ship."2 A  name  on  a  title-page,  an  attribution  in  a  catalogue, 
are  strong  inducements  to  accept  the  authorship  or  the  at- 
tribution without  further  discussion.  Naturally,  it  would  be 
ridiculous  to  doubt  for  an  instant  a  work  whose  genuineness 
is  beyond  question;  but  when  it  is  a  matter  of  secondary 
works,  unknown  works,  posthumous  works  added  to  the  writ- 
ings of  an  author  long  since  dead,  works  published  anony- 

xTo  all  the  examples  discussed  here,  add  among  others  the  following: 
H.  Chamard,  "La  date  et  1'auteur  du  Quintil  Horatian,"  Revue  d'histoire 
litteraire,  1898,  p.  54;  P.  Martinon,  "Note  sur  le  Philandre  attribue  a  May- 
nard,"  ibid.  1908,  p.  495;  C.  Beaugrand,  "Est-ce  un  madrigal  de  Bossuet?" 
ibid.  1901,  p.  35 ;  G.  Ascoli,  "Bayle  et  I' Avis  aux  rejugies"  ibid.  1913,  p.  517, 
an  excellent  article  in  which  the  discussion  of  the  various  internal  and  external 
proofs  is  managed  with  much  skill.  Finally,  quite  recently  in  an  article  in 
the  Temps  (October  16,  1919)  Pierre  Louys,  the  author  of  Aphrodite  and  of 
the  Chansons  de  Bilitis,  defended  the  thesis — unexpected,  to  say  the  least — 
that  Corneille  is  the  author  of  most  of  Moliere's  great  comedies.  His  argu- 
ments do  not  seem  to  have  made  much  impression  on  the  world  of  scholars; 
nevertheless,  it  is  interesting  and  amusing  from  the  point  of  view  of  method 
to  follow  the  discussion  that  this  question  provoked.  See,  in  particular,  A. 
Poizat,  in  Revue  bleue,  1919,  p.  682 ;  P.  P.  Plan,  in  Mercure  de  France,  Vol. 
CXXXVI  (1919),  p.  603;  H.  Lyonnet,  mNouvelle  Revue,  May  i,  1920,  p.  33; 
H.  Bidou,  in  Revue  critique  des  idees  et  des  livres,  Vol.  XXVII  (1920),  p.  i. 

2Langlois  and  Seignobos,  Introduction  aux  etudes  historiques,  p.  67. 


PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

mously  or  pseudonymously,  our  first  attitude  should  be  one 
of  prudence  if  not  of  mistrust.  If  we  look  at  the  subject  as 
a  whole,  the  analyzed  examples  teach  us  certain  definite 
lessons. 

1.  Beware  of  evidence  too  hastily  gathered;  do  not  an- 
nounce a  victory  too  soon ;  avoid  premature  conclusions :  on  a 
first  reading,  the  famous  Naigeon  manuscript,  for  example, 
apparently  leaves  no  room  for  doubt;   Dr.  Armaingaud's 
arguments  have  a  disturbing  force.    Besides,  do  not  statistics 
prove  that  attempts  to  deprive  an  author  of  some  work  that  is 
universally  attributed  to  him  often  result,  when  all  is  said,  in 
restoring  it  to  him  with  doubts  removed  ? 

2 .  In  every  case  confine  yourself  to  the  text,  without  pre- 
conceived ideas,  without  the  desire  to  prove  at  all  costs  its 
authenticity  or  lack  of  authenticity.     You  have  watched 
Bedier,  Lanson,  Villey,  and  the  rest  reach  their  most  decisive 
conclusions  solely  by  close  application  to  the  text. 

3.  The  process  that  seems  to  recommend  itself  in  prob- 
lems of  this  kind  is  the  following:  (i)  after  separating  the 
facts  sharply  one  from  another,  analyze  and  arrange  them 
(compare  Bedier 's  statements  about  the  Naigeon  manuscript, 
and  Villey 's  study  of  the  working-methods  and  mannerisms 
of  the  author  of  the  Contr'un) ;  (2)  form  a  hypothesis  as  to 
the  authenticity  of  a  part  or  of  the  whole;   (3)  verify  the 
hypothesis  by  returning  to  the  text — the  hypothesis,  if  cor- 
rect, should  allow  you  to  explain  every  fact  singled  out  in 
your  preliminary  work. 

The  arguments  that  arise  in  these  problems  in  literary  his- 
tory resemble  those  found  in  the  critical  investigations  of 
general  history.  They  are  of  two  sorts :  arguments  from  in- 
ternal analysis ;  arguments  from  external  analysis.1 

1See  Introduction  aux  itudes  historiques,  chap,  iii,  "Critique  de  prove- 
nance," pp.  66-78. 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  191 

INTERNAL  CRITICISM 

1.  For  such  problems  internal  criticism  or  analysis  con- 
sists first  in  collating  all  indications,  information,  and  evi- 
dence bearing  on  the  author  and  the  origins  of  his  work :  the 
handwriting;  the  manuscript  itself  (its  appearance,  its  pe- 
culiarities) ;  the  first  edition  or  any  interesting  reprints, — 
in  short,  all  bibliographical  evidence  as  defined  in  another 
part  of  this  chapter. 

2.  Next  should  follow  the  arguments  we  call  '  philologi- 
cal ' :  arguments  based  on  the  language,  the  vocabulary,  the 
syntax;  on  mannerisms  of  expression  and  of  style.   Every 
great  writer — often   in   proportion   to   his   greatness — has 
turns  of  phrase,  of  expression,  that  belong  only  to  him; 
personal  tricks  of  style  that  may  be  sufficiently  marked  to 
enable  us  to  identify  him.    Again  caution  is  needed:  a  few 
isolated  facts  prove  nothing ;  peculiarities  may  be  seized  upon 
by  someone  else  and  successfully  imitated.    Under  the  title 
A  la  maniere  de  .  .  .  two  humorists  have  published  a  collec- 
tion of  pastiches  of  the  best  French  writers,  into  which  all  the 
tricks  of  these  writers  are  cleverly  introduced;    Voltaire 
knows  so  well  how  to  imitate  the  style  of  one  of  his  enemies 
that  in  after  years  the  latter  is  deceived  himself.    Moreover, 
the  language  and  the  style  of  a  writer  are  not  fixed;  in  an 
early  work  they  may  not  be  definitely  formed.    At  times  the 
style  varies  with  the  work:  Montaigne's  Voyages  seems  in 
many  places  to  be  by  a  different  hand  from  the  Essais.    Ac- 
cumulated in  sufficient  numbers,  however,  these  philological 
arguments,  carefully  studied  and  criticized,  have  great  weight. 

3.  A  third  class  of  argument  is  drawn  from  the  facts  or 
names  mentioned  in  the  work — the  allusions  of  every  kind 
that  it  contains  (we  have  seen  such  an  argument  used  in  the 
quarrel  over  the  Contr'un).   Chronology  is  of  powerful  as- 


192  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

sistance  here,  not  infrequently  betraying  the  forger  or  the 
untrustworthy  editor.  Nevertheless,  once  more  you  must 
guard  against  unjustified  conclusions :  an  historical  allusion 
that  chronologically  cannot  be  attributed  to  a  writer  may 
reveal  an  interpolation,  an  addition,  without  condemning  the 
whole  work ;  allusions  to  works  published  after  the  one  un- 
der discussion  may  mean  only  that  the  books  mentioned  were 
known  and  read  before  their  publication,  as  often  happened 
a  few  centuries  ago. 

4.  It  is  only  if  we  can  produce  some  dependable  argu- 
ments from  internal  analysis  that  we  may  safely  add  to 
them  considerations  of  taste  or  personal  impression.  The 
latter  should  not  be  neglected :  they  may  reenforce  the  proof 
(though  they  do  not  furnish  it).  Faguet  guesses  correctly 
about  the  Paradoxe  sur  le  comedien,  but  others  are  deceived 
about  Book  V  of  Rabelais  and  about  Montaigne.  The  best 
writers  have  their  off  moments,  in  which  they  produce  pages 
unworthy  of  themselves.  Or  they  may  systematically  affect 
different  mannerisms  (compare  Montesquieu's  style  in  the 
Lettres  persanes  with  his  style  in  some  parts  of  the  Esprit  des 
lois).  Finally,  a  writer  may  try  to  disguise  his  own  style.  In 
no  case  should  the  reader's  subjective  impression  decide  a 
question  of  attribution. 

EXTERNAL  CRITICISM 

To  the  arguments  from  internal  analysis  should  be  added 
the  information  gained  through  external  criticism. 

a.  The  connection  between  the  work  and  the  life  of  the 
author,  studied  particularly  in  his  correspondence  and  auto- 
biographical documents. 

b.  The  conditions  under  which  the  book  is  printed:   if 
there  is  an  editor,  his  worth  and  personality,  the  degree  of 
confidence  he  inspires,  etc. 


AUTHENTICITY  AND  ATTRIBUTION  193 

c.  References  made  to  the  document  by  contemporary 
witnesses  or  subsequent  writers.  This  testimony  should  be 
criticized  and  studied  with  an  eye  to  whether  it  follows  a 
single  tradition  or  represents  different  sources. 

Rare  are  the  texts  that,  subjected  to  an  impartial  ex- 
amination, do  not  eventually  give  up  their  secrets.  In  every 
case  the  methods  used  in  problems  of  attribution  or  of  au- 
thenticity are  those  that  need  the  keenest  critical  sense,  those 
that  connect  most  closely  the  historical  study  of  literature 
with  general  history  and  its  successful  processes. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
QUESTIONS  OF  VERSIFICATION 

To  describe  in  detail  the  methods  used  in  the  study  of 
versification  a  thick  volume  would  be  needed:  metres  and 
rhythms  constitute  nowadays  just  as  special  branches  as 
language  or  as  literature  itself,  requiring  a  careful,  complete 
technical  preparation.  If  this  preparation  is  too  much  to 
expect  of  a  young  student,  he  should  at  any  rate  gain  a 
certain  familiarity  with  the  domain  of  versification — ground 
often  touched  upon  by  the  works  of  literary  history  and 
sown  with  difficulties  and  obstacles.  He  should  be  able  to 
prepare  an  intelligent  commentary  on  a  poem,  to  write  with- 
out absurd  heresies  a  chapter  on  the  versification  of  an 
author,  or  to  supply  the  introduction  and  annotation  to  a 
critical  edition  of  a  poetic  work.  The  aim  of  the  following 
pages  is  to  help  him  in  these  undertakings. 

The  important  and  valuable  aid  furnished  today  to  the 
study  of  versification  by  experimental  phonetics  will  not  be 
included.  This,  again,  is  a  field  for  trained  specialists  work- 
ing with  an  equipment  and  along  lines  of  which  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give  here  a  detailed  account.  Those  who  desire  to 
initiate  themselves  may  read  with  advantage  works  such  as 
G.  Lote,  L'Alexandrin  franfais  d'apres  la  phonetique  experi- 
mentale1'  E.  Landry,  Theorie  du  rythme2 ;  P.  Verrier, 
L'Isochronisme  dans  le  vers  fran$ais.3  They  will  find  in 
them  descriptions  of  instruments,  and  accounts  of  experi- 
ments and  of  the  resulting  conclusions. 

*2d  ed.,  3  vols.   Paris,  1914.  2Paris,  1911.  3Paris,  1912. 

194 


QUESTIONS  OF  VERSIFICATION  195 

For  our  purpose  it  will  suffice,  first,  to  make  known  the 
implements,  the  works  essential  to  an  understanding  of  the 
structure  and  the  artistic  elements  of  French  poetry;  next, 
to  draw  up  an  outline  of  research,  a  list  of  questions  to  be 
raised  in  studying  a  text  in  verse.  By  this  means  it  will  be 
easy  to  find  the  points  that  call  for  remark  or  discussion  and 
to  reach  the  literary  and  aesthetic  conclusions  that  are  their 
natural  consequences. 

I.  IMPLEMENTS 

The  acquisition  of  bibliographical  information  regarding 
French  verse  is  greatly  simplified  today  by  Hugo  P.  Thieme, 
Essai  sur  I'histoire  du  vers  frangais.*  The  title  might  have 
been  more  judiciously  chosen :  it  should  be,  rather,  Introduc- 
tion bibliographique  a  la  versification  jranqaise.  The  work 
has  obvious  faults,  which  the  reviews  in  the  special  periodi- 
cals have  emphasized  without  mercy.  Indeed,  there  is  little 
of  importance  in  the  first  two  hundred  pages,  which,  com- 
menting upon  the  references  given  in  Part  II,  merely  rear- 
range them ;  but  in  this  second  part  there  is  a  valuable  and 
systematic  enumeration  of  everything  or  almost  everything 
that  has  been  printed  on  French  verse  and  related  subjects. 
First,  there  is  a  comprehensive  Bibliographic  chronologique 
et  analytique,  extending  from  the  documents  of  the  early 
fourteenth  century  to  works  published  in  1914,  and  com- 
pleted by  references  to  periodicals  in  every  language,  from 
the  Journal  des  savants  in  1665  up  to  1914.  Next  follow 
Tableaux  analytiques,  where  all  references  given  elsewhere 
are  reassembled  under  such  headings  as  "Accent,"  "Alexan- 
drine," "Assonance,"  "Ballad,"  "Caesura,"  "Rhyme,"  "En- 
jambement,"  "Ode,"  "Quarrels  and  polemics,"  "Sonnet." 

18vo,  Paris,  1916. 


1 96  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Lastly,  an  Index  chronologique  arranges  each  text  in  its 
place  in  the  bibliographical  history  of  French  verse.  A  few 
moments  spent  in  glancing  through  this  book  will  give  an 
idea  of  what  a  help  it  may  be.  As  has  been  justly  said  of 
Thieme's  Guide  bibliographique,  it  will  always  be  possible  to 
indulge  in  criticizing  it  and  pointing  out  its  errors,  but  it  will 
never  be  possible  to  do  without  it. 

For  some  of  our  students,  nevertheless,  Thieme's  book  has 
another  shortcoming,  for  which  the  author  this  time  is  not 
responsible.  He  takes  for  granted  that  the  reader  knows  the 
essential  principles  and  terminology  of  versification  as  well  as 
the  allied  problems  of  metre  and  rhythm.  For  those  who 
feel  this  drawback  the  following  works  will  serve  as  the 
necessary  preparation:1 

i.  GRAMMONT,  M.  Petit  Traite  de  versification  fran^aise.2 

LE  GOFFIC  and  THIEULIN.  Nouveau  Traite  de  versifica- 
tion jranqaise* 

These  two  treatises  are  elementary  but  full  of  information 
and  general  ideas.  They  supplement  each  other  so  satisfac- 
torily that  to  read  them  is  an  excellent  initiation  to  the  study 
of  French  verse.  In  Grammont's  book  the  best  chapters  are 
those  on  rhythm  (pp.  47-66)  and  harmony  (pp.  104-125), 
and  the  conclusion  (pp.  127-133) — a  short  but  keen  analy- 
sis of  the  evolution  of  French  poetry  from  its  origin.  In  the 
Nouveau  Traite  I  recommend  the  chapters  on  the  counting  of 
syllables  (pp.  10-31),  on  rhyme  and  its  varieties  (pp.  41-68), 
and  on  poems  of  fixed  form  (pp.  106-131).  Perhaps  it  is 
well  to  warn  the  reader  of  the  slightly  oversystematic  tend- 
ency of  some  of  Grammont's  opinions,  especially  concerning 
the  rhythms  of  the  classic  Alexandrine  (pp.  60-61). 

1Here  it  is  a  question  of  versification  only  after  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

2Paris,  1908.  3Paris,  1890. 


QUESTIONS  OF  VERSIFICATION  197 

2.  DORCHAIN,  A.   L'Art  des  vers.* 

Dorchain's  book  is  an  exoteric  work,  but  intelligently  exo- 
teric and  written  by  a  poet.  The  general  rules  of  versifica- 
tion are  clearly  set  forth,  and  the  artistic  value  of  French 
verse  is  analyzed  with  finesse  and  simplicity.  It  forms  an 
excellent  introduction  to  the  subject. 

3.  GRAMMONT,  M.    Le  Vers  frangais.    Ses  Moyens  d' ex- 
pression, son  harmonie.2 

The  Petit  Traite  by  the  same  author,  mentioned  above,  is 
only  a  summary  of  this  important  work.  Owing  to  the  abun- 
dance of  examples,  the  clearness  of  arrangement,  the  preci- 
sion of  analysis,  Grammont's  Vers  frangais  is  the  vade-mecum 
for  every  study  of  versification,  especially  for  rhythms  and 
the  expressive  value  of  vowels  and  consonants.  As  was  the 
case  with  the  Petit  Traite,  one  should  distrust  certain  narrow 
or  too  systematic  views  of  the  author  on  the  rhythm  of  classic 
lines  or  the  expressive  value  of  sounds,  and  understand  that 
his  theories  are  neither  definitely  established  nor  universally 
accepted.  It  is  also  well  to  remember  that  Grammont's  Vers 
jranqais  should  be  read  in  the  second  edition,  much  enlarged 
and  improved. 

4.  BECQ  DE  FOUQUIERES.    Traite  general  de  versification 
jranqaise? 

If  Becq  de  Fouquieres's  book  contained  only  his  ingenious 
but  unfounded  hypotheses  concerning  the  origin  of  the  Alex- 
andrine, it  would  not  be  worth  recommending.  But  once  the 
first  chapters  are  left  behind,  there  follow  the  most  able,  the 
most  artistic,  analyses  of  rhythmic  accent,  with  long  series  of 
well-chosen,  well-arranged  examples.  In  this  respect  he  com- 
pletes, and  on  many  points  helps  to  modify  and  correct, 
Grammont's  conclusions. 

1  Paris,  1905.  22ded.   Paris,  1913. 

3  Paris,  1879. 


IQ8  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

5.  TOBLER.    Vom  jranzosischen  Versbau.1 

Tobler's  Versbau  is  a  standard  work,  not  because  it  is 
perfect  but  because  of  its  clear  treatment  of  the  metrical 
mechanism  of  French  verse.  On  this  point  it  is  still  of  great 
use,  although  in  the  treatment  of  rhythms  the  two  works  just 
mentioned  completely  supplant  it. 

6.  KASTNER,  L.  E.    A  History  of  French  Versification.2 
Although  Kastner's  work  is  slightly  out  of  date  on  ques- 
tions of  rhythm,  its  chapters  on  the  counting  of  syllables,  on 
rhyme,  and  on  fixed  forms  of  poetry  should  be  highly  recom- 
mended.   The  great  number  of  examples  given  makes  it 
particularly  valuable. 

It  should  be  well  understood  that  these  few  references  are 
intended  merely  as  .an  introduction  to  the  questions  of  versi- 
fication. They  will  acquaint  the  student  who  has  had  little 
or  no  experience  in  this  field  (i)  with  the  terminology3  and 
(2)  with  the  principles,  and  the  technical  and  artistic  proc- 
esses, of  French  verse. 

II.  PLAN  AND  METHODS  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  VERSIFICATION 

"We  are  always  compelled,  we  Frenchmen,  to  tell  for- 
eigners, confident  of  their  learning  and  judgment,  that  there 
are  some  things  in  the  French  language  and  in  French  litera- 
ture that  only  a  Frenchman  perceives,  and  that  only  he  is 
qualified  to  appreciate."4  It  is  certain  that  to  understand 
French  poetry,  and,  above  all,  to  feel  with  precision  its 
rhythm  and  harmony,  presuppose  an  intimate  familiarity 

1ist  ed.,  1880;  sth  ed.,  1910;  French  translation,  1885. 

2  Oxford,  1903. 

3  See  Kastner,  "Histoire  des  termes  techniques  de  la  versification,"  Revue 
des  langues  romanes,  1904,  pp.  1-28. 

4Lanson,  preface  to  Hugo  P.  Thieme's  Essai  sur  I'histoire  du  vers  jran- 
fais,  p.  Lx. 


QUESTIONS  OF  VERSIFICATION  199 

with  the  very  spirit  of  the  language ;  and  it  is  unhappily  cer- 
tain also  that  many  works  on  French  versification  written  by 
foreigners  show,  together  with  much  conscientious  labor,  a 
sad  if  not  a  ridiculous  inability  to  grasp  what  constitutes 
French  poetry.  This  remark  should  not  be  the  cause  of  dis- 
couragement but  of  prudence.  I  fully  believe  that  an  Amer- 
ican student  can  acquire  a*  deep  feeling  for  the  beauty  of 
French  poetry  and  can  comment  upon  it  with  insight  and 
accuracy.  Experience  has  proved  this.  Two  indispensable 
conditions,  however,  are  implied :  first,  the  precise,  technical 
apprenticeship  already  insisted  on;  next,  and  even  more 
necessarily,  a  long  training  of  the  ear,  a  practiced  sense  of 
the  harmonies  and  the  accents  of  the  French  language. 
Without  this  training  he  runs  the  risk  of  preparing  dry, 
tedious,  profitless  statistics,  like  those  Germans  who  count 
rhymes  and  csesuras  in  Antoine  de  Montchrestien  or  fill  over 
a  hundred  pages  with  charts  of  Rostand's  rhymes  in  Cyrano 
de  Bergerac ;  or  perhaps — and  this  is  even  more  to  be  feared 
— he  exposes  himself  to  random  conclusions  about  things  he 
cannot  understand. 

Let  us  suppose,  then,  that  the  necessary  preparation  is 
completed.  How  should  a  study  in  versification  be  carried 
on  ?  What  questions  should  be  raised  ?  What  arrangements 
chosen  ? 

A  general  division  should  first  be  laid  down:  (i)  Each 
line  should  be  studied  separately,  and  (2)  the  lines  should 
be  considered  in  their  mutual  relations. 

There  will  remain  a  third  series  of  questions, — the  most 
important  of  all, — those  on  the  relations  between  the  poetic 
expression  and  the  subject  treated.1 

xThe  plan  of  study  outlined  here  seems,  barring  certain  more  or  less 
fundamental  modifications,  to  be  generally  adopted  in  recent  works  on  ver- 
sification. Here  are  varied  examples,  chosen  from  many,  that  may  be  examined 


200  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 


LINES  CONSIDERED  SEPARATELY 

Each  line  taken  by  itself  gives  rise  to  three  sorts  of  re- 
marks, varying  in  importance  with  the  instance. 

1.  Syllabic  structure:  description  oj  the  line.   How  many 
syllables  has  the  line  ?  Should  it  be  given  a  particular  name  ? 
A  word  or  a  figure  usually  suffices  to  answer  these  questions. 
The  only  point  that  may  present  any  difficulty  is  the  number 
of  syllables.    Lines  exist  where  either  the  presence  of  a  mute 
e  or  of  a  word  in  which  the  number  of  syllables  is  uncertain 
raises  a  problem.    It  is,  however,  almost  always  simple  to 
collect  the  material  and  examples  necessary  for  the  kind  of 
historical  or  logical  explanation  required.1 

2 .  Rhythmical  structure.  It  is  when  undertaking  the  com- 
mentary on  rhythm  that  the  real  perplexity  of  the  student 
is  likely  to  begin.  It  is  here,  besides,  that  he  specially  needs 
definite  ideas.   The  treatises  and  manuals,  in  offering  him 
information,  are  liable  to  confuse  him   further.    In  them 
occur  the  words  "caesura,"  coupe,  "pause,"  "rhythm,"  "ac- 

and  discussed  before  undertaking  researches  in  this  field:  L.  Clement,  "La 
Versification  de  La  Fontaine,"  Revue  universitaire,  Vol.  II  (1892),  pp.  282- 
302;  M.  Souriau,  L'Evolution  du  vers  jranc.ais  au  XVII'  siecle  (Paris,  1893) 
(see  Brunetiere's  critical  contribution,  in  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1894, 
p.  497) ;  P.Nebout,  Le  Drame  romantique  (1895)  (interesting  for  the  study  of 
the  influence  on  versification  exerted  by  the  new  dramatic  forms)  ;  M.  Souriau, 
"La  Versification  de  Lamartine,"  Revue  des  cours  et  conferences,  Vol.  VII 
(1899),  pp.  841-860;  A.  Beaunier,  "Le  Vers  libre,"  Mercure  de  France,  1901, 
pp.  613-633;  Jasinski,  Histoire  du  sonnet  en  France  (Douai,  1903) ;  Chatelain, 
"Le  Vers  libre  dans  Amphytrion"  Melanges  de  philologie  oflerts  a  M.  Brunot 
(1904),  pp.  41-55;  A.  Cassagne,  Versification  et  metrique  de  Ch.  Baudelaire 
(Paris,  1906)  ;  D.  Mornet,  L'Alexandrin  franfais  dans  la  deuxieme  moitie  du 
XVlIle  siecle  (Toulouse,  1907)  ;  A.  Rochette,  L'Alexandrin  chez  Victor  Hugo 
(Paris,  1911) ;  P.  Martinon,  "La  Versification  de  Corneille,"  Revue  des  cours 
et  conferences,  Vol.  XXII  (1913),  pp.  198-205. 

1See  Thieme,  p.  372,  for  references  on  the  question  of  the  mute  e,  and  the 
opening  chapters  of  Le  Gome  and  Thieulin  or  of  Kastner  for  those  on  the 
number  of  syllables  in  doubtful  words. 


QUESTIONS  OF  VERSIFICATION  201 

cent,"  " measure,"  defined  in  twenty  ways — sometimes  dif- 
ferentiated, sometimes  used  nearly  synonymously.  He  will 
find  contradictory  interpretations  and  theories;  he  will  see 
that  German  scholars  have  based  on  syllabic  quantity  and 
on  accent  a  theory  of  rhythm  in  French  verse  that  French 
theorists  have  in  general  energetically  disclaimed.  Among 
French  theorists  themselves  there  are  as  many  doctrines  as 
treatises ;  the  same  line,  quoted  as  an  example  in  two  works, 
may  be  scanned  in  different  ways.  If  he  opens  the  Vers 
frangais  of  Grammont,  he  will  read  a  very  acceptable  theory 
of  the  Romantic  trimeter  and,  in  turning  to  Rochette's  thick 
volume  entitled  L' Alexandria,  chez  Victor  Hugo,  he  will  notice 
that  the  author  practically  denies  the  existence  of  this  trime- 
ter. The  Reflexions  sur  I'art  des  vers  of  Sully-Prudhomme. 
who  was  a  good  poet,  is  radically  contradicted  by  the  writings 
of  Verlaine,  Gustave  Kahn,  Souza,  and  many  other  poets 
belonging  to  the  younger  schools.  Even  the  so-called  scien- 
tific conclusions  of  experimental  phonetics  do  not  seem  to  be 
unanimous :  Landry,  in  concluding  his  enormous  Theorie  du 
rythme,  apparently  reaches  a  definition  on  an  essential  point 
— the  equality  of  the  intervals  between  stresses — that  dis- 
agrees with  that  reached  by  Lote  at  the  end  of  his  still  more 
gigantic  work  entitled  L'Alexandrin  frangais  d'apres  la  pho- 
netique  experimental.  Indeed,  "grammatici  certant  .  .  .m 

Face  to  face  with  this  chaos  of  definitions,  of  ideas,  and 
of  doctrines,  nothing  can  equal  the  bewilderment  of  the  stu- 
dent who  is  obliged  to  handle  these  questions,  unless  it  is  that 
of  the  professor  whose  duty  it  is  to  explain  them  to  him. 
And  this  is  precisely  the  difficulty  that  delays  us  now. 

It  would  be  unacceptable  dogmatism  to  set  up  one  more 
system  and  to  attempt  to  thrust  it  upon  my  readers.  Doubt- 

xAn  idea  of  the  complexity  of  the  question  may  be  had  from  Thieme's  his- 
torical outline  of  it,  chap,  ix,  pp.  154-196. 


202  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

less  it  seems  to  me  that  a  certain  number  of  points  have  been 
established,  on  which  I  base  comments  in  the  classroom  and 
opinions  as  to  my  personal  reading.  I  follow  the  majority  of 
the  theorists  of  the  present  day  in  believing  that  poetic 
rhythms  may  be  defined  as  the  recurrence  at  approximately 
regular  intervals  of  stress,  or  rhythmic  accent.  I  believe  that, 
through  a  gradual  evolution,  French  verse,  purely  syllabic  at 
the  start,  with  pauses  or  caesuras  in  fixed  positions,  has  pro- 
gressively grown  into  a  verse  whose  artistic  effect  is  based  on 
a  rhythm  produced  by  accents,  or  stress.  The  duration  of 
the  rhythmic  measures  varies  only  slightly;  the  number  of 
syllables  contained  in  these  measures  may  vary  considerably. 
It  is  necessary,  then,  for  the  delivery  to  be  retarded  or 
hastened  so  that  the  last  tonic  syllable  of  the  group  inclosed 
in  a  measure  shall  coincide  with  the  stress  that  marks  the 
end  of  the  measure.  If  to  this  we  add  the  expressive,  me- 
lodic, and  harmonic  value  of  vowels  and  consonants,  we  have 
every  element  necessary  to  the  analysis  and  aesthetic  ap- 
preciation of  French  verse.  The  existence  of  the  trimeter, 
which,  although  found  in  all  our  great  poets  since  the  six- 
teenth century,  is  called  Romantic — a  line  of  three  metrical 
units  instead  of  the  four  contained  in  the  so-called  classic 
Alexandrine — seems  to  me  an  established  fact.  It  must  be 
understood,  however,  that  this,  as  well  as  many  other  de- 
tails that  might  be  added,  is  neither  indisputable  nor  uni- 
versally admitted. 

How,  then,  shall  the  student  be  guided  and  advised  ?  His 
effort,  it  seems  to  me,  should  be  successively  directed  toward 
three  points :  first,  the  acquisition  of  an  intimate  familiarity 
with  French  poetry;  next,  the  building  up  of  a  technical 
knowledge  of  the  various  terminologies  and  doctrines  offered 
to  him ;  lastly,  the  adoption  of  a  personal  attitude  that  will 
enable  him  to  judge,  feel,  and  comment  intelligently. 


QUESTIONS  OF  VERSIFICATION  203 

I  do  not  hesitate  to  insist  once  more  upon  the  necessity  of 
a  personal  and  prolonged  acquaintance  with  French  poetry 
before  attempting  either  commentary  or  discussion.  It  is 
the  same  with  poetry  as  with  music :  ear-training  is  the  in- 
dispensable preliminary  condition  of  any  technical  appren- 
ticeship. It  is  superfluous  to  teach  harmony  or  counterpoint 
to  someone  who  does  not  know  whether  a  chord  is  in  tune 
or  a  measure  in  time.  Although  it  is  true  that  Beethoven 
became  deaf,  he  was  not  deaf  during  the  years  when  his 
genius  was  forming.  When  the  ear  feels  the  rhythm  of  the 
line,  then,  and  then  only,  is  it  possible  to  theorize  and  to 
comment  on  this  rhythm. 

Next,  the  student  must  look  up  the  question  of  terminol- 
ogy and  the  principal  systems  involved  in  the  discussion. 
Many  of  the  obscurities  that  he  encounters  come  from  the 
fact  that  the  same  word  is  used  for  different  things :  "caesura" 
is  a  good  example  of  this.  If  the  caesura  is  defined  as  "a  rest 
for  the  voice,  marked  in  the  interior  of  the  line  by  a  tonic 
syllable  more  strongly  accented  than  the  other  tonics  in  the 
line",1  this  definition,  which  is  exact  for  the  ancient  French 
line,  is  found  to  be  already  less  applicable  to  many  of  the 
classic  lines,  and  difficult  to  apply  at  all  to  Romantic  verse. 
If  it  is  defined  as  synonymous  with  the  rhythmic  coupe,  this 
explains  neither  the  ancient  line  nor  the  classic  Alexandrine. 
The  student  should,  then,  first  of  all  be  clear  in  his  own 
mind,  and  oftener  than  not  it  is  the  history  of  French  verse 
that  will  enlighten  him.  What  was  the  condition  of  versifi- 
cation at  a  given  epoch  ?  What  were  its  canons  and  its  tech- 
nique? In  what  sense  would  the  poet  he  is  studying  have 
understood  the  terms  that  seem  to  him  vague  and  confused  ? 
It  is  his  own  affair,  through  research  and  reading,  to  form  a 
technical  vocabulary  in  which  each  word  shall  finally  assume 

1  Le  Goffic  and  Thieulin,  Nouveau  Traitt  de  versification  Jran$aise,  p.  69. 


204  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

a  distinct  value ;  this  is  why  I  refrain,  in  these  questions  of 
rhythm,  from  giving  any  ready-made  definitions. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  systems  and  doctrines.  Through 
reading,  reflection,  attentive  and  open-minded  study  of  the 
texts,  the  student  who  at  first  will  feel  at  sea,  and  buffeted 
about  from  system  to  system,  will  notice  that  gradually 
certain  ideas  are  taking  shape  in  his  mind.  By  using  elemen- 
tary works  as  a  starting-point,  verifying  definitions,  distin- 
guishing from  among  the  different  theories  those  that  are 
dangerous  hypotheses,  excessive  systematization,  or  the  ex- 
clusive creed  of  a  single  school,  he  will  succeed  in  con- 
structing a  system  for  himself,  not  original,  of  course,  but 
coherent,  clear,  well-assimilated.  And  on  this  foundation  he 
will  base  his  personal  studies  and  commentaries. 

Thus,  when  the  occasion  arises,  he  will  possess  the  elements 
with  which  to  answer  the  necessary  questions  as  to  the 
rhythmical  structure  of  a  line : 

a.  Where  do  the  rhythmic  accents  occur  ? 

b.  From  the  number  and  place  of  these  accents  how  should 
the  line  be  described  ?    For  instance,  if  it  is  an  Alexandrine, 
is  it  a  tetrameter  or  a  trimeter?    Is  the  coupe  usual,  rare, 
traditional,  original,  etc.? 

c.  What   is   the   aesthetic  and   expressive  value   of  the 
rhythmic  structure  in  this  line?   What  effect  is  produced 
(majestic  slowness,  balance,  rapidity,  lightness,  etc.)  ? 

Is  it  necessary  to  add  that  it  is,  above  all,  in  this  commen- 
tary on  rhythm  that  the  student's  accuracy  of  ear  and  depth 
of  artistic  feeling  are  disclosed  ? 

3.  Harmonic  structure.  There  remains  to  be  studied  the 
question  of  "sounds  considered  as  means  of  expression".1 
Without  doubt,  in  the  work  of  real  poets  there  is  a  relation 
between  the  sound  of  the  words  and  the  ideas  or  the  feelings 

1  Title  of  the  second  part  of  Grammont's  Vers  fran$ais  (2d  ed.),  P-  193. 


QUESTIONS  OF  VERSIFICATION  205 

they  express.  Poetry  has  analogies  with  music:  "Vowels 
are  kinds  of  notes."  Combined  with  consonants  they  form 
groups  of  sound  whose  tone,  brilliance,  softness,  and  dura- 
tion are  infinitely  varied.  Assonance,  repetition,  alliteration, 
skillfully  used  and  artistically  combined  with  certain  sounds, 
are  the  means  that  poets  use  to  give  their  lines  melody  and 
harmony.  These  delicate  shades  are  brought  out,  analyzed, 
and  explained  by  the  study  of  the  poetic  text. 

Now  into  the  study  itself  must  be  put  much  delicacy  and 
many  shadings.  There  is  great  risk  of  drying  up  everything 
that  is  touched  and  of  crushing  the  poem  under  a  weight  of 
commentary.  Such  clumsiness  gives  rise  to  a  certain  ironic 
skepticism  in  regard  to  minute  studies  of  this  kind.  We 
hear  people  say:  "Do  you  suppose  that  the  poet  thought  of 
all  those  things  when  he  wrote  his  lines?  Do  you  believe 
that  he  said  to  himself:  'Here  I  am  going  to  use  alliteration 
with  m',  here,  multiply  the  gr's  and  cr's,  so  as  to  obtain  a 
harsh  effect;  here,  construct  my  line  on  the  sound  of  &  to 
make  it  clear  and  light'?  You  do  not  give  him  credit  for 
spontaneous  inspiration." 

To  this  objection  the  reply  is  simple.  On  the  one  hand,  it 
is  primarily  a  question  of  explaining  the  why  of  the  impres- 
sion produced  in  a  line:  as  sounds  have  much  to  do  with 
that  impression,  it  is  legitimate  to  analyze  the  sounds.  "It 
is  these  details",  said  Theophile  Gautier,  in  his  study  on 
Baudelaire,  "that  make  poetry  good  or  bad  and  that  make 
a  poet  good  or  bad".  On  the  other  hand,  I  am  convinced 
that  frequently  these  effects  are  intentional  on  the  part  of 
the  author :  he  is  well  aware  of  the  expressive  value  of  sounds 
and  wants  to  profit  systematically  by  them.  The  best  proof 
of  this  is  found  in  his  corrections  in  the  manuscript.  It  is 
there  that  we  trace  the  effort  to  interweave  the  sounds  little 
by  little  so  as  finally  to  express  the  inner  melody  heard  by  the 


206  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

poet.  One  day  Jose-Maria  de  Heredia,  commenting  to  a 
friend  on  an  admirable  sonnet  that  he  had  just  written,  said : 
"Here  I  first  put  je  ne  sais ;  but  how  much  better  j'ignore  is ! 
How  well  that  o  sounds  with  the  other  o's  in  the  next  line  1" 
In  many  cases  it  is  not  defaming  a  poet  to  credit  him  with 
very  definite  intentions,  even  when  the  perfect,  easy  form  of 
the  finished  line  seems  to  exclude  all  idea  of  preliminary 
reflection. 

Therefore  the  harmonic  structure  of  each  line  may — in- 
deed, should — be  studied  with  minute  care.  On  this  point 
the  best  guide  seems  to  me  to  be  Grammont,  whose  analyses 
are  extremely  detailed  and  are  followed  by  abundant  exam- 
ples. If  you  make  allowance  for  his  too  great  love  of  sys- 
tematizing, you  will  learn  easily  from  him  how  to  establish 
with  accuracy  this  important  part  of  the  commentary. 

GROUPS  OF  LINES 

When  the  commentary  on  each  separate  line  has  been 
completed,  the  lines  must  be  studied  in  their  mutual  rela- 
tions and  groupings.  Three  series  of  questions  arise  here: 
rhyme,  enjambements,  arrangement  of  lines  in  strophes  or 
in  poems  of  fixed  form. 

i.  Rhyme.  The  study  of  rhyme  offers  no  great  difficulty, 
after  the  few  technicalities  connected  with  it  have  been 
thoroughly  mastered :  the  difference  between  assonance  and 
rhyme;  the  various  sorts  of  rhyme  (poor,  sufficient,  rich) ; 
the  various  possible  arrangements  of  rhyme  (rimes  con- 
tinues, plates,  croisees,  embrassees,  tiercees,  melees,  etc.).1 
You  will  have  treated  the  subject  amply  in  a  given  poem  if 
you  have  defined  the  quality  of  the  rhymes  used,  the  arrange- 

1  Questions  relative  to  rhyme  are  treated  with  special  clearness  by  Le  Goffic 
and  Thieulin  and  by  Kastner. 


QUESTIONS  OF  VERSIFICATION  207 

ment  adopted,  and  lastly — when  occasion  arises — the  artis- 
tic effects  produced  by  their  combination. 

2.  Enjambements  and  re  jets.  Enjambement  and  rejet  are 
not  two  different  things:  "When  a  phrase  is  begun  in  one 
line  and  ended  in  the  next,  without  completely  filling  the 
second,  we  call  this  'enjambement,'  and  the  end  of  the 
phrase  that  has  run  over  into  the  second  line  is  the  '  re  jet'."1 
Attention  should  be  paid  to  the  following  points:   (i)  the 
frequency  of  the  enjambements  and  their  proportion  to  the 
total  number  of  lines  in  a  poem;    (2)  their  purpose  and 
the  effects  produced  by  them.    Enjambement  is  one  of  the 
details  of  French  versification  that  have  varied  most  in  the 
course  of  time:  rare  in  ancient  poetry,  used  with  growing 
discrimination  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  for- 
bidden by  Malherbe  and  by  Boileau,  it  assumes  new  im- 
portance with  Chenier  and  becomes  one  of  the  favorite 
means  of  expression  of  the  Romanticists,  especially  of  Vic- 
tor Hugo.    It  will  be  wise,  therefore,  in  commenting  on  the 
rejets,  to  state  what  is  the  usage  of  the  poet  compared  with 
the  general  usage  of  his  time. 

3.  Grouping  of  the  lines.   The  rhythmical  combinations 
according  to  which  lines  may  be  grouped  remain  to  be  con- 
sidered.  Three  cases  occur : 

First,  there  may  be  a  succession  of  lines  of  the  same  kind ; 
if  so,  the  question  is  much  simplified.  How  does  the  poetic 
phrase  develop  ?  What  advantage  has  the  poet  taken  of  the 
rhythmic  resources  of  his  line  ?  Has  he  framed  long  periods 
that  spread  over  several  lines,  or  does  he  cut  the  monotonous 
cadence  by  frequent,  unexpected,  bold  breaks?  In  short, 
the  adaptation  of  the  poetic  form  to  the  general  movement 
of  inspiration  and  thought  should  be  described. 

1Grammont,  Petit  Traite,  p.  20. 


208  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Next,  the  text  may  be  what  is  called  a  poem  of  fixed  form : 
rondeau,  ballade,  chant  royal,  lai,  virelai,  villanelle,  sonnet, 
etc.1  In  this  case  it  is  important  first  to  gain  a  clear  idea  of 
the  rules  and  traditions  of  the  form  used  and  then  to  decide 
to  what  extent  the  text  conforms  to  accepted  canons  or 
breaks  away  from  them.  The  form  chosen  may,  besides, 
be  well  or  ill  adapted  to  the  feeling  or  the  thought  that  the 
poet  wishes  to  express — and  this  suitability  should  be  closely 
analyzed. 

Lastly,  lines  may  be  grouped  in  strophes.  The  ground 
here  is  more  difficult;  the  student  may  come  face  to  face 
with  somewhat  contradictory  definitions  and  theories.  He 
will  find  a  wise  guide — though  one  not  always  easy  to  fol- 
low— in  the  huge  work  by  Martinon  on  Les  Strophes.2  An 
historical  introduction  treats  the  development  of  every  va- 
riety of  strophe  since  the  time  of  Marot.  There  follows  a 
detailed  study  of  each  strophe,  with  many  examples ;  finally, 
a  Repertoire  general  des  strophes  makes  comparison  easy 
by  giving  with  the  necessary  references  a  list  of  the  poets 
who  have  used  each  form  of  strophe.  The  general  method 
adopted  by  Martinon  points  the  way  for  special  studies  on 
the  strophes  of  a  given  author  or  work.  We  see  that  there 
are  three  series  of  questions  to  ask :  ( i )  the  number  of  lines 
(the  most  evident  and  superficial  characteristic);  (2)  the 
order  of  the  rhymes  (the  arrangement  determines  what  may 
be  called  the  rhythm  of  the  strophe,  and  clearly  indicates  the 
type  of  the  strophe  in  the  category  to  which  its  length  as- 
signs it);  (3)  the  nature  of  the  lines  that  make  up  the 
strophe,  and  the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged — whether 

aLe  Goffic  and  Thieulin,  as  well  as  Kastner,  explain  with  precision  and 
simplicity  the  various  poems  of  fixed  form.  In  Thieme,  pp.  350-387,  will  be 
found  the  essential  bibliography  for  each  form. 

2  P.  Martinon,  Les  Strophes.  Etude  historique  et  critique  sur  les  formes 
de  la  poesie  lyrique  en  France  depuis  la  renaissance  (8vo).  Paris,  1911. 


QUESTIONS  OF  VERSIFICATION  209 

one  kind  of  line  only  is  used  (strophes  isometriques} ,  or 
whether  there  is  a  combination  of  lines  of  various  lengths 
(strophes  heterometriques} .  Thanks  to  Martinon's  list  and 
tables,  it  will  always  be  simple  to  classify  any  variety  of 
strophe.  The  use  to  which  the  poet  has  put  his  means  of 
expression  will  remain  to  be  shown. 

ESTHETIC  COMMENTARY 

All  that  has  been  said  up  to  this  point  is  but  the  technical 
study  preliminary  to  what  should  be  the  real  and  essential 
aim  of  all  commentary  on  versification — the  artistic  and 
aesthetic  analysis.  The  line  is  only  the  harmonious  covering 
for  thought  and  emotion;  it  is  the  delicate  instrument 
touched  by  the  true  poet,  whose  music  in  its  turn  touches 
our  hearts.  But  the  poet  succeeds  precisely  because  he  em- 
ploys the  processes  that  we  have  just  been  studying.  There- 
fore how  and  why  he  succeeds  must  be  made  clear.  I  do  not 
refer  to  declamatory  effusions  full  of  vague  admiration. 
Nothing  is  worse.  I  ask,  first,  that  the  student  understand 
and  feel,  fully  and  sincerely,  what  the  poet  has  in  his  mind  or 
in  his  heart ;  that  he  share  these  ideas  and  feelings ;  then,  that 
he  trace  the  poet's  attempts  at  expression,  through  rhythms, 
harmonic  values,  interplay  of  rhymes,  coupes,  and  strophes ; 
that  he  show  whether  the  poet,  through  inspiration  or 
through  patient  toil,  has  indeed  found  the  most  expressive, 
the  most  suggestive,  the  most  moving  forms.  In  this  way  he 
will  have  accomplished  a  task  infinitely  more  worth  while 
than  the  piling  up  of  laudatory  epithets  and  exclamation 
points.  He  will  have  learned  to  understand,  to  appreciate, 
to  feel. 


CHAPTER  IX 

TREATMENT  OF  BIOGRAPHICAL  MATERIAL  IN  THE 
HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE 

There  is  scarcely  a  work  on  the  history  of  literature  that 
does  not  devote  a  certain  space  to  biography.  In  a  mono- 
graph on  a  writer  its  place  will  be  large.  In  the  study  of 
some  particular  work,  even  of  some  genre  or  of  some  cur- 
rent of  ideas,  biographical  elements  of  varying  importance 
must  often  be  introduced.  Indeed,  the  relation  between  a 
book  and  the  personality  of  its  author  is  of  necessity  so 
close  that  a  knowledge  of  the  work  presupposes  complete 
acquaintance  with  the  antecedents  and  the  life  of  the  writer. 
It  is  therefore  indispensable  to  reflect  for  a  time  upon  the 
treatment,  and  more  particularly  upon  the  collecting  and 
selecting,  of  biographical  material  in  literary  history. 

I  purposely  restrict  myself  to  this  aspect  of  the  question. 
It  is  the  province  of  special  books  to  develop  a  theory  of 
biography  and  to  analyze  its  principal  characteristics  and 
regulations.  My  aim  is  to  point  out  to  the  student  from 
what  angle,  in  a  literary  essay,  it  is  well  to  treat  biography ; 
what  type  of  material  is  especially  suitable;  and  on  what 
features  it  is  important  to  throw  the  strongest  light.1 

1  An  excellent  treatment  of  the  question  discussed  in  this  chapter  is  found  in 
D.  Mornet,  "Les  Methodes  de  1'histoire  litteraire  6tudiees  a  propos  d'une 
oeuvre:  LaNouvelle  Heloise,"  Revue  des  cours  et  conjerences,Vol.  XXII1  and 
XXII2  (1913-1914).  But  a  familiarity  with  Sainte-Beuve's  works  is  un- 
doubtedly the  best  training  in  the  handling  of  literary  biography.  Some  pages 
of  great  interest  are  found  in  Nouveaux  Lundis,  Vol.  Ill,  article  on  Chateau- 
briand; Portraits  litteraires,  Vol.  I,  pp.  29  ff. ;  Port-Royal,  Vol.  I,  chap.  i. 
See  also  the  following  works  dealing  with  Sainte-Beuve's  methods:  Faguet, 


TREATMENT  OF  BIOGRAPHICAL  MATERIAL    211 

In  one  of  Pailleron's  comedies  an  author,  engaged  in  pre- 
paring a  book,  takes  every  occasion  pompously  to  announce 
its  title:  "Murillo :  sa  vie,  son  ceuvre."  Life  and  Works — how 
many  theses  have  been  ruined  in  advance  by  the  adoption 
of  this  stereotyped  plan,  which,  by  arbitrarily  separating 
the  biography  from  the  historical  and  critical  study  of  the 
works,  condemns  the  author  either  to  a  series  of  useless  and 
fatiguing  repetitions  (if  he  wishes  to  refer  to  the  biography 
in  his  explanation  of  the  works)  or  else  to  a  biographical 
narrative  in  which  the  facts  and  dates,  isolated  from  the 
study  of  the  works,  lose  a  large  part  of  their  interest ! 

For  the  historian  of  literature  the  final  and  essential  aims 
should  be  the  interpretation  of  the  literary  work  and  the 
analysis  of  the  literary  personality  of  the  writer.  These  aims 
determine  the  spirit  in  which  the  biographical  researches 
should  be  undertaken:  they  should  be  the  means  not  of 
satisfying  a  predilection  for  anecdotes  but  of  elucidating  the 
writer's  work  and  personality.  William  Mathews  has  writ- 
ten a  clever  page  denouncing  the  futility  of  these  infinitesi- 
mal researches  on  which  the  efforts  of  biographers  are  often 
expended — a  page  that  doubtless  was  not  hard  to  write  or 
to  make  entertaining.  "What  matters",  he  says,  "if  a  book 
charms,  inspires,  or  instructs  us,  whether  the  author  smoked 
or  drank  stimulants;  or  borrowed  money,  or  forgot  to  pay 

Politiques  et  ntoralistes  du  XlXe  siecle  (third  series,  1900),  pp.  185  ff.;  Lanson, 
Avant-Propos  of  Hommes  et  livres.  It  will  be  helpful  to  read  F.  S.  Stevenson, 
Historic  Personality  (London,  1893) ;  L.  Stein,  "Zur  Methodenlehre  der  Bio- 
graphik,"  in  Biographische  Blatter  (herausgegeben  von  A.  Bettelheim,  Berlin), 
1895,  Vol.  I,  pp.  22-39;  L.  Arnould,  "La  Methode  biographique  de  Sainte- 
Beuve,"  Correspondant,  December  25,  1904,  and  his  "La  Methode  biogra- 
phique en  critique  litteraire,"  which  prefaces  the  volume  Quelques  Poetes  (Paris, 
1907) ;  S.  Lee,  Principles  oj  Biography  (Cambridge,  1911) ;  W.  H.  Dunn,  Eng- 
lish Biography  (London,  1916),  especially  chap,  ix,  "Problems  and  Tendencies 
of  the  Present" ;  W.  R.Thayer,"  Biography  in  the  XlXth  century,"  North  A  meri- 
can  Review,  May-June,  1920,  and  published  in  book  form  (New  York,  1921). 


212  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

his  tailor  and  his  washerwoman ;  whether  he  quarreled  with 
his  wife,  separated  from  his  wife,  was  divorced  from  his  wife, 
or  kept  out  of  the  matrimonial  noose  altogether  ?  To  know 
the  vices  and  weaknesses  of  a  great  writer,  his  oddities  and 
eccentricities  and  manner  of  life;  to  know  that  Pope  had  a 
voracious  appetite  for  stewed  lampreys,  Dr.  Parr  for  hot 
lobsters  with  shrimp  sauce,  and  Johnson  for  a  leg  of  mutton ; 
.  .  .  that  Byron  shaved  his  brow  to  make  it  look  higher, 
and  found  his  inspiration  in  green  tea,  tobacco,  and  semi- 
starvation;  that  within  the  Chateaubriand  of  Atala  there 
was  an  obscene  Chateaubriand  that  indulged  in  the  coarsest 
talk, — to  know  all  these  petty  details  is  pleasant,  and  grati- 
fies a  natural  curiosity ;  they  give  picturesqueness  and  charm 
to  biography;  they  may  help  occasionally  to  explain  the 
growth  and  prominence  of  some  idiosyncrasy,  or  some  char- 
acteristic sentiment  or  idea ;  but  how  a  knowledge  of  them  is 
necessary  to  a  just  estimate  of  the  literary  productions  of 
these  authors,  it  is  hard  to  see."1  This  is,  however,  too 
casual  a  dismissal  of  the  question.  If  the  biographer  has  the 
"exquisite  tact"  and  the  "appreciation  of  nuances"  so  dear 
to  Renan,  he  will  know  how  to  discriminate  and  choose ;  he 
will  know  how  to  show  that  many  of  these  details,  which  are 
so  easy  to  make  fun  of,  are  very  useful,  if  not  indispensable, 
for  a  just  estimate  of  the  character  and  the  art  of  the  writer. 
After  all,  a  knowledge  of  Lamartine's  pecuniary  difficulties 
explains  many  shortcomings  in  his  style.  Victor  Hugo's 
walks  on  the  rocks  at  Guernsey,  La  Fontaine's  habit  of  tak- 
ing daily  strolls,  help  to  explain  their  feelings  toward  nature. 
And  to  know  when  and  how  Alfred  de  Musset  began  to  drink 
is  not  superfluous  for  fathoming  his  later  works.  Even  if  it 
is  quite  true  that  we  can  "pronounce  upon  the  beauty  and 

1  Introductory  essay  to  the  translation  of  a  selection  of  Sainte-Beuve's 
Cauteries  du  lundi  ("Monday  Chats"),  pp.  Iviii-lx.    Chicago,  1877. 


TREATMENT  OF  BIOGRAPHICAL  MATERIAL    213 

perfume  of  a  rose  without  analyzing  the  soil  whence  it 
sprang",  it  is  no  less  true  that  the  real  rose-lover,  he  who 
wants  not  only  to  enjoy  the  flower  momentarily  but  to  know 
all  about  it  and,  if  need  be,  to  reproduce  it,  must  consider 
the  question  of  the  soil  and  will  not  be  satisfied  until  he  has 
solved  it.  Of  this  sort  is  the  legitimate  curiosity  of  the  his- 
torian of  books  and  authors :  he  realizes  that  he  can  under- 
stand neither  the  book  nor  the  author  if  he  separates  his  life 
from  his  work. 

There  are,  besides,  excellent  reasons  of  another  kind  for 
adopting  this  policy.  Numerous  examples  remind  both  the 
historian  and  the  critic  of  the  wise  rule  that  biographical 
precision  should  be  the  basis  of  psychological  conclusions. 
He  knows  that  the  most  ingenious  analyses,  the  most  seem- 
ingly logical  deductions,  may  be  shattered  by  fresh  bio- 
graphical details  duly  established.  He  thinks  of  the  number 
of  pages  that  become  obsolete  as  more  accurate  information 
brings  out  salient  biographical  facts.  Are  examples  neces- 
sary? Take  Moliere  and  Tartuffe:  the  biographical  docu- 
ments unearthed  within  the  last  fifteen  years  have  certainly 
changed  the  traditional  interpretation  of  the  comedy.  And 
how  about  Moliere's  distant  ancestor,  the  Pierre  Gringore 
whose  legendary  figure  fills  the  pages  of  Notre-Dame  de 
Paris  and  Banville's  delightful  play?  Up  to  within  a  scant 
dozen  years  it  has  been  difficult  to  think  of  Gringore  in  any 
other  light.  But  historians  have  been  at  work ;  successively 
Oulmont  and  Guy,  stripping  the  legend  from  Gringore,  have 
disclosed  the  real  man. 

It  is  indeed  regrettable  that  the  real  Gringore  bears  no  resem- 
blance whatever  to  the  Gringore  conceived  by  the  Romanticists. 
Nothing  in  him  recalls  either  the  proud,  independent  artist  with 
heroic,  chivalrous  soul  that  Theodore  de  Banville  has  drawn,  or 
the  starving  "Gringoire"  in  Notre-Dame  de  Paris.  .  .  .  Yes,  pic- 


214  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

ture  to  yourself  a  person  no  longer  young,  lacking  in  enthusiasm, 
a  stodgy,  humdrum  bourgeois,  a  Joseph  Prudhomme  armed  with 
proverbs,  a  petty  official  reflecting  the  opinions  of  his  superiors,  a 
model  of  circumspection,  a  dealer  in  poetic  wares  who  never  leaves 
his  counter, — and  you  will  see  before  you  the  real  Gringore.1 

There  has  been  the  same  readjustment  of  ideas  relative  to 
the  poet  Nicolas  Gilbert.  In  his  case  it  is  not  only  Vigny's 
touching  pages  but  the  entire  tradition  that  had  to  be  revised 
when  well-informed  biographers  brought  to  light,  in  place  of 
the  romantic  Gilbert  dying  on  a  straw  pallet  in  an  unheated 
garret,  uau  banquet  de  la  vie  infortune  convive",  a  poet  in 
easy  circumstances,  possessed  of  a  fairly  disagreeable  nature 
and  a  knack  of  finding  useful  patronage.2 

Finally,  much  that  has  been  written  about  the  exotism  of 
Chateaubriand  in  his  role  of  traveler,  his  powers  of  observa- 
tion, and  the  sincerity  of  his  descriptions,  was  seriously  im- 
paired when  Bedier's  precise  researches3  established,  for  the 
writer's  stay  in  America,  his  itinerary  almost  day  by  day. 
Was  it  not  Stendhal  who  remarked  that  the  cleverest  and 
wittiest  man  alive  stands  agape  before  the  blockhead  who 
knows  a  date  ? 

Such  is  the  vital  importance  of  biographical  precision  in 
the  deductions  of  literary  history.  How  can  it  be  attained  ? 
I  believe  that  here  we  can  find,  if  not  rules  and  recipes,  at 
least  a  trustworthy,  attractive  guide — I  mean  Sainte-Beuve. 
There  is  no  surer  training  than  to  read  and  reread  the  best 

*H.  Guy,  Histoire  de  la  poesie  franfaise  au  XV le  siecle,  Vol.  I,  pp.  278  ff. 
See  also  C.  Oulmont,  Pierre  Gringore  (1911). 

2 See,  on  the  one  hand,  Alfred  de  Vigny,  Stella,  chap,  xi,  "Un  Grabat"; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  H.  Potez,  L'Elegie  en  France  avant  le  romantisme 
(1897),  or  Johann  Weiss,  Nicolas  Gilberts  Satiren  (1896),  corrected  by  the 
documents  published  by  H.  Druon,  in  Correspondant,  August  25  and  September 
10,  1897,  and  by  Laffay,  Le  Poete  Nicolas  Gilbert  (1898). 

3"  Chateaubriand  en  AmSrique,"  £tudes  critiques,  1903. 


TREATMENT  OF  BIOGRAPHICAL  MATERIAL    215 

of  his  Portraits  litteraires  or  of  his  Causeries  du  lundi,  with 
attention  to  the  way  in  which  he  makes  biographical  infor- 
mation the  very  basis  of  his  literary  criticism.  Little  by  little 
the  true  technique  of  literary  biography  evolves  itself,  made 
up  not  of  mechanical  devices  but  of  a  combination  of  curios- 
ity, perspicacity,  and  intuition  that  no  one  has  achieved  in 
the  same  degree  as  Sainte-Beuve.  First  of  all,  he  defines 
with  force  both  the  aim  and  the  difficulty  of  the  biogra- 
pher's task. 

We  should  invade  an  author ;  take  up  our  abode  with  him ;  set 
him  in  motion  under  various  conditions ;  make  him  live,  act,  speak, 
as  was  habitual  to  him ;  penetrate  as  far  as  possible  into  his  inner 
and  domestic  life ;  attach  him  on  all  sides  firmly  to  that  earth  and 
to  those  daily  habits  upon  which  great  men  no  less  than  others 
depend.  .  .  .  We  should  study  an  author ;  revolve  him  round  and 
round ;  question  him  at  our  leisure ;  or  persuade  him  to  pose  be- 
fore us.  One  at  a  time  the  features  are  added  and  fall  auto- 
matically into  place  in  the  physiognomy.  .  .  .  With  the  vague, 
abstract,  general  type  by  degrees  is  blended  and  fused  a  concrete 
individuality.  We  have  found  the  man.1 

In  this  extract  an  entire  programme  is  contained,  which 
presents  at  least  two  distinct  parts:  (i)  collection  of  bio- 
graphical documents;  (2)  treatment,  arrangement,  and  in- 
terpretations of  these  documents. 

I.  COLLECTION  OF  THE  DOCUMENTS 

The  sources  of  information  naturally  vary  with  the  writer, 
his  epoch,  the  place  of  his  activity,  and  the  social  class  to 
which  he  belongs.  Yet,  in  a  general  way,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  principal  fields  to  be  explored  are  the  following : 

i .  Archives  and  official  documents  of  every  kind :  manu- 
script and  printed  genealogical  records,  public  and  private ; 

^•Portraits  litteraires,  Vol.  I,  p.  29. 


216  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

attorneys'  files;  parish  and  civil  registers  (dossiers  de  no- 
taires,  registres  de  paroisse,  registres  d'etat-civil).1 

2.  Works  by  the  author  himself,  with  particular  insist- 
ence upon  his  correspondence  and  upon  all  works  directly 
or  indirectly  autobiographical  in  character. 

3.  Literature  relative  to  the  author:  contemporary  mem- 
oirs and  correspondence;  allusions  to  the  author  in  other 
literary  works ;  newspapers  and  reviews ;  works  of  erudition 
and  research,  among  which  books  edited  in  the  heart  of  the 
provinces,  or  the  smaller,  local  reviews,  though  difficult  in 
many  cases  to  find  in  even  the  best-equipped  libraries,  should 
not  be  neglected.   A  fact  to  be  remembered  is  that  the  enor- 
mous series  Ln27  of  the  Catalogue  de  I'histoire  de  France  at 
the  Bibliotheque  nationale  is  devoted  to  Biographies  indivi- 
duelles.    Interesting  data  may  often  be  found  by  glancing 
through  the  tables  of  the  Catalogue  des  manuscrits  des 
bibliotheques  des  departements.  Lastly,  the  contributions  of 
all  local  and  provincial  societies  are  also  important.2 

4.  A  visit  to  the  spot  where  the  writer  has  lived  may  leave 
a  valuable  impression.  To  become  familiar  with  the  house 
where  he  was  born  and  brought  up,  the  landscape  at  which 
he  gazed  (especially  during  his  childhood) ;  to  be  a  Breton 
with  Chateaubriand  or  Renan,  a  Genevese  or  Savoyard  with 
Rousseau;  to  seek  Pascal  in  the  valley  of  Port- Royal,  Vol- 
taire at  Ferney,  or  Lamartine  by  the  Lake :  this  is  not  merely 
to  accomplish  a  pious  literary  pilgrimage — it  is  to  fit  our- 
selves, as  well,  to  understand  and  know  these  men  more 
thoroughly. 

1The  Manuel  de  bibliographic  historique,  by  Langlois,  gives  detailed  de- 
scriptions of  these  various  sources  and  tells  how  and  where  to  find  them. 

2 An  essential  work  for  references  of  this  kind  is  R.  de  Lasteyrie  and 
A.  Lefevre-Pontalis,  Bibliographic  generate  des  travaux  historiques  et  archeo- 
logiques  publics  par  les  sotietes  savantes  de  France  (4  vols.,  4to  (1888-1905), 
and  a  continuation). 


TREATMENT  OF  BIOGRAPHICAL  MATERIAL    217 

5.  In  the  case  of  many  modern  authors  the  oral  tradi- 
tion should  not  be  overlooked.  Descendants,  collaborators, 
friends,  more  or  less  direct  witnesses,  may  furnish  helpful 
information,  provided  the  facts  thus  obtained  are  carefully 
verified  and  accepted  at  their  true  value.1 

II.  TREATMENT  OF  DOCUMENTS — ESSENTIAL  POINTS  OF 
LITERARY  BIOGRAPHY 

Now,  with  attention  to  exactness  and  authenticity,  we 
must  learn  how  to  use  and  combine  the  documents  in  con- 
structing a  biography.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the  special 
characteristic  assumed  by  biography  in  literary  history  ap- 
pears most  clearly.  It  is  not,  so  to  speak,  disinterested  biog- 
raphy ;  the  aim  is  not  to  find  as  many  facts  as  possible  and 
to  weave  them  into  an  appealing,  moving,  brilliant  narrative. 
The  aim  is  to  shed  light  upon  the  development  of  the 
author's  literary  personality  and  the  inspiration  of  his  work. 
There  are,  then,  special  points — doubtless  attractive  to  any 
biographer — that  become  real  centres  of  interest  to  the  his- 
torian of  literature.  Sainte-Beuve  will  still  be  our  guide  in 
enumerating  the  following  topics  of  paramount  importance : 

1.  Native  country,  physical  environment,  scenery  of  child- 
hood and  youth. 

2.  Racial  conditions  and  general  heredity. 

3.  Ancestry,  both  direct  and  collateral,  as  far  back  as  it 
can  be  traced.  Sainte-Beuve  rightly  dwells  on  the  importance 
and  the  influence  of  the  mother,  "the  most  direct  and  certain 
parent".   He  also  advises  that  if  there  are  brothers  and 
sisters  they  receive  special  consideration,  believing  that  in 

1With  all  the  documents  assembled,  and  according  as  the  biographical  re- 
search advances,  every  incident  in  the  author's  life  should  be  recorded  on  a 
series  of  cards,  as  on  a  calendar,  day  by  day,  .week  by  weei,  or  month  by 
month,  as  suits  the  particular  case. 


2i8  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

them  the  hereditary  strain  and  family  traits  will  be  disclosed, 
undimmed  by  the  disturbances  of  genius.  "We  discover  in 
these  relatives",  he  says,  "some  essential  lineaments  of 
character  that  in  the  great  man  himself  are  often  masked 
through  extreme  concentration  or  a  too  intimate  union  with 
other  qualities.  The  elements  of  the  man  are  exhibited  in 
his  kindred  with  less  concealment  and  less  disguise;  we 
profit  by  an  analysis  that  nature  alone  has  been  at  the  pains 
of  making."1 

4.  Formation  of  personality  through  education  and  study : 
early  education  in  the  family;  schools  or  colleges;  masters 
and  fellow  students;   curricula  of  instruction;   certain  or 
probable  reading;  general  tendencies  of  the  education  re- 
ceived (for  instance,  the  Jesuitical  leaning  toward  Latin, 
the  Greek  bias  of  Port-Royal,  the  influence  of  some  eminent 
teacher). 

5.  Physical  and  physiological  conditions  active  in  mould- 
ing a  writer :  scientific  data  as  to  his  health,  physical  defects 
or  weaknesses,  etc.   This  is  a  field  fertile  in  interesting  and 
curious  discoveries,  but  dangerous  for  the  layman  who  trusts 
himself  to  use  a  medical  vocabulary  and  to  deal  with  the 
results  of  medical  experiments.    On  this  question  books  such 
as  Toulouse,  Entile  Zola,2  Dumesnil,  Flaubert,  son  heredite, 
son  milieu,  sa  methode,3  or  Lauvriere,  Alfred  de  Vigny*  may 
be  profitably  studied. 

6.  Moral  and  intellectual  environment:  his  friends  and 
comrades;    the  groups  or  sets  among  which  he  reached 
maturity.6 

*Nouveaux  Lundis,  Vol.  Ill,  article  on  Chateaubriand. 
2  Paris,  1896.  3  Paris,  1905. 

4  Paris,  1910.    Researches  of  the  same  kind  are  found  in  his  Edgar  Poe,  sa 
vie  et  son  ceuvre  (2  vols.)  (Paris,  1904). 

5  There  are  talents  that  partake  of  several  groups  at  once,  and  never  stop 
traversing  successive  surroundings,  perfecting,  transforming,   or  deforming 


TREATMENT  OF  BIOGRAPHICAL  MATERIAL    219 

7.  Publication  of  the  first  masterpiece  or  of  the  first  work 
of  real  importance.    Sainte-Beuve  sees  in  this  the  "essential 
point"  of  a  great  author's  life;  he  wants  to  " seize,  compre- 
hend, and  analyze  the  entire  man  at  the  instant  when,  by  a 
more  or  less  gradual  cooperation,  his  genius,  education,  and 
circumstances  have  combined  in  such  a  fashion  that  he  pro- 
duces his  first  masterpiece".1 

8.  Publication  of  each  work,  with  its  date  and  all  perti- 
nent biographical  details. 

9.  Period  of  deterioration,  at  times  of  decadence,  during 
which  the  writer  evidences  an  exhausted  or  deflected  in- 
spiration;  causes,  personal  or  historical,  psychological  or 
physical,  immediate  or  indirect,  of  this  sterility  or  deviation. 

Such  in  outline  are  the  tactics  to  be  followed  when  we 
would  "lay  siege"  to  an  author.  We  must  now,  to  continue 
Sainte-Beuve's  military  metaphor,  launch  the  attack  and 
storm  the  position. 

"It  is  impossible",  he  says  again,  "to  try  too  many  ways 
of  becoming  acquainted  with  a  man,  which  means  something 
very  different  from  becoming  acquainted  with  a  pure  spirit. 
So  long  as  you  have  not  asked  yourselves  a  certain  number 
of  questions  about  an  author,  and  answered  them,  if  only  for 
your  private  benefit,  and  sotto  voce,  you  cannot  be  sure  of 
possessing  him  completely.  This  is  true,  even  though  these 
questions  seem  altogether  foreign  to  the  nature  of  his  writ- 
ings. What  were  his  views  on  religion  ?  How  was  he  affected 
by  the  spectacle  of  nature  ?  How  did  he  behave  in  regard  to 
women  ?  in  regard  to  money  ?  Was  he  rich  or  poor  ?  What 
was  his  daily  mode  of  life  from  the  standpoint  of  hygiene? 

themselves.  It  is  important  to  note,  even  in  these  slow  or  rapid  variations 
and  conversions,  the  hidden,  unalterable  spring,  the  persisting  motive  power. 
— Sainte-Beuve,  loc.  tit. 

1  Portraits  litteraires,  Vol.  I,  p.  31. 


220  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Lastly,  what  was  his  besetting  vice  or  weakness?  Every 
man  has  one."1 

You  should,  therefore,  in  the  course  of  your  researches 
keep  ever  before  your  mind  this  list  of  questions  suggested 
by  Sainte-Beuve.  You  should  be  fired  with  the  tireless  curi- 
osity that  never  deserted  him;  you  should  force  yourself 
to  develop  a  little  of  his  extraordinary  psychological  finesse 
and  divination.  You  will  then  see  the  results  of  your  bio- 
graphical quest  take  shape  almost  automatically:  your  anal- 
ysis will  lend  to  each  detail  psychological  significance  at 
the  same  time  that  its  own  foundation  is  rounded  out  and 
solidified  by  every  added  fact.2 

It  is  especially  on  the  arrangement  of  these  biographical 
elements  that  a  work  of  literary  history  depends  for  attrac- 
tion, interest,  and  charm.  There  is  no  field,  however,  that 
demands  more  intelligence  and  skill. 

1Nouveaux  Lundis,  Vol.  Ill,  article  on  Chateaubriand. 

2  For  examples  of  French  biography,  I  should  first  have  to  cite,  with  few 
exceptions,  Sainte-Beuve's  complete  works.  Besides  these  there  are  biographies 
of  every  length,  of  every  type,  of  every  style,  from  the  eight  volumes  in  which 
Desnoiresterres  traces  Voltaire's  life,  to  the  sixteen  pages  in  which  Baldensper- 
ger,  prefacing  his  edition  of  Vigny,  has  condensed  into  definite  and  vivid  form 
all  that  is  essential  in  the  poet's  career.  It  is  solely  as  samples,  and  knowing 
well  that  for  each  of  these  titles  another  might  be  substituted,  that  I  mention 
here  a  few  works  that  will  repay  a  close  study :  E.  Eire,  Victor  Hugo  avant 
1830,  Victor  Hugo  apres  1830,  distinguished  by  admirable  documentation  but 
marked  hostility  to  the  poet;  E.  Dupuy,  La  Jeunesse  des  romantiques,  and 
other  works  on  Vigny,  models  of  intuitive,  artistic  biography;  E.  Faguet,  Vie 
de  Rousseau,  a  perfect  example  of  the  way  to  disentangle  complicated  ques- 
tions ;  G.  Michaut,  Sainte-Beuve  avant  les<l  Lundis,"  an  interesting  study  on  the 
formation  of  a  great  writer,  but  heavy  and  inartistic;  G.  Rudler,  La  Jeunesse 
de  Benjamin  Constant,  containing  irreproachable  documentation,  which,  how- 
ever, slightly  overbalances  the  book;  P.  Courteault,  Blaise  de  Montluc,  his- 
torien,  alert,  lively,  clear,  scholarly,  attractive  biography.  Two  other  useful 
examples  of  a  happy  biographical  arrangement  are  Lanson's  Voltaire  and  A. 
Barine's  Alfred  de  Mussel  in  the  Collection  des  grands  ecrivains  de  la  France. 
W.  R.  Thayer's  little  book  Biography  in  the  XlXth  century  mentions  several 
of  the  best  biographies  written  in  English  during  that  period. 


TREATMENT  OF  BIOGRAPHICAL  MATERIAL    221 

First  to  be  considered  is  the  delicate  question  of  propor- 
tionate importance.  The  space  that  should  be  allotted  to  the 
life  as  compared  with  that  devoted  to  the  works  varies  greatly 
and  depends  obviously  upon  the  closeness  of  the  relation  that 
exists  between  the  two :  the  biography  of  a  Rousseau  or  of  a 
Chateaubriand  is  more  essential  to  the  complete  comprehen- 
sion of  his  works  than  is  that  of  a  Boileau  or  even  of  a 
Montesquieu. 

It  depends  also  upon  the  particular  goal  in  view:  the  life 
of  a  writer  may  be  made  the  pivotal  point  in  the  treatment 
of  his  work,  or  preference  may  be  given  to  the  literary  ex- 
amination of  his  books.  What  is  indispensable  in  each  in- 
stance is  a  clear  statement  and  justification  of  the  attitude 
adopted.  P.  M.  Masson  purposed,  in  dealing  with  Mme  de 
Tencin,  to  recount  "a  woman's  life  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury", and  he  has  succeeded  admirably.  Doubtless,  he  has 
not  exhausted  everything  that  literary  history  could  find  to 
say  about  Mme  de  Tencin.  She  played  a  role  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  sentimental  or  historical  novel  of  the  eighteenth 
century  that  Masson  has  not  completely  studied ;  he  does  not 
take  up  the  history  of  the  origins  and  evolution  of  the  genre ; 
he  makes  no  attempt  to  define  the  exact  place  of  the  author 
of  the  Memoires  du  Comte  de  Comminges  and  of  Le  Siege 
de  Calais  among  the  other  novelists  of  her  time.  Why  should 
we  reproach  him?  It  would  be  as  unjust  as  to  criticize  the 
historian  engaged  on  a  history  of  the  eighteenth-century  novel 
for  not  entering  into  the  details  of  Mme  de  Tencin's  life  as  a 
femme  d'intrigue  and  a  more  or  less  unscrupulous  adven- 
turess. In  the  vast  field  of  literary  studies  each  critic  treats 
the  subject  that  interests  him  from  the  angle  that  he  prefers. 
Nothing  is  more  profitable  than  the  sort  of  checking  up  that 
consists  in  concentrating  on  one  detail  a  number  of  individ- 
ual researches  with  different  starting-points  and  different 


222  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

objectives.  Reviewing  Masson's  excellent  contribution,  Mor- 
net1  remarks  that  in  it  he  has  woven  a  solid  warp;  another 
writer,  treating  the  question  from  a  more  strictly  literary 
angle,  will  some  day  furnish  the  woof;  and,  as  the  threads 
cross  and  recross,  the  power  of  resistance  will  be  doubled — 
that  is  to  say,  the  facts  will  be  substantiated  by  a  double 
current  of  investigation. 

A  second  requirement  in  the  treatment  of  biographical 
material,  though  not  peculiar  to  literary  biography,  assumes 
such  importance  in  this  field  that  it  is  well  to  emphasize  it. 
This  is  the  feeling  for  life,  and  especially  for  the  supple, 
complex  continuity  of  life.  There  is  always  a  temptation  to 
divide  a  'life'  into  two,  three,  or  four  periods,  set  apart  by 
prominent  dates  or  works.  This  process  is  convenient,  be- 
cause usually  conducive  to  clearness  and  precision,  but  it  is 
almost  always  artificial  and  often  quite  misleading.  The  old- 
time  critic  is  still  held  up  to  ridicule  who  found  in  the  develop- 
ment of  Racine's  career  three  epochs,  "that  in  which  he  was 
inferior  to  himself ;  that  in  which  he  was  equal  to  himself ; 
that  in  which  he  was  superior  to  himself".  It  is  to  be  feared 
that  more  recently,  when  Faguet2  discovered  "three  succes- 
sive Cheniers",  and  in  his  poetry  a  "first  manner,  a  second 
manner,  and  a  third  manner",  he  was  merely  perpetuat- 
ing, under  a  more  scientific  and  modern  guise,  the  ancient 
methods. 

There  are  rarely  sharp  turns  in  the  lives  and  careers  of 
famous  writers,  any  more  than  there  are  leaps  in  nature. 
Doubtless  we  find  crises,  crucial  periods,  but  if  we  look 
closely  and  push  our  analyses  far  enough,  we  discover  that 
there  have  been  slow,  obscure,  progressive  preparations.  We 
perceive  the  seed,  the  underground  sprout,  which  often 

lRevue  d'histoire  litttraire,  1909,  p.  627. 

zAndri  Chtnier  (in  Collection  des  grands  tcrivains).   Paris,  1902. 


TREATMENT  OF  BIOGRAPHICAL  MATERIAL    223 

abruptly  bursts  forth,  giving  an  illusion  of  entire  novelty. 
We  must  discover  all  this  mysterious  and  invisible  prepara- 
tory work.  It  is  thus  that  certain  biographical  and  literary 
studies  of  a  more  exact  and  extensive  kind  have  shown  that 
neither  Voltaire's  stay  in  England,  Victor  Hugo's  exile,  nor 
the  episode  of  the  oak  of  Vincennes  in  the  life  of  Rousseau, 
nor  even  the  'conversion'  of  Pascal,  justifies  any  ruthless 
division  under  the  headings  "before"  and  "after."1 

Lastly,  neither  the  most  scrupulously  arranged  documents 
nor  the  most  thorough  researches  suffice  to  make  a  biog- 
raphy living.  The  resurrection  of  a  literary  personality  calls 
for  a  higher  art;  it  belongs  indeed  to  the  realm  of  creative 
literature  rather  than  to  that  of  mere  scholarship.  Many 
excesses  and  errors  have  been  perpetrated  in  this  regard: 
witness  the  '  Molierists,'  the  '  Rousseauists,'  or  the  'Stendha- 
lians,'  who,  in  their  respectable  adoration  of  their  idols,  have 
frequently  confused  limitless  scholarly  curiosity  with  real 
biographical  sense.  It  is  not  by  the  accumulation  of  docu- 
ments in  the  text  of  a  biography ;  it  is  not  by  the  multiplica- 
tion of  footnotes,  by  the  reproduction  of  insignificant  papers, 
that  the  characteristics  of  an  author  are  necessarily  illumined. 
Material  must  be  sifted  and  sacrifices  made ;  it  is  in  this  that 
the  critical  and  artistic  sense  of  a  biographer  is  put  to  the  test. 
It  is  shown  also  in  the  effort  to  infuse  through  his  style  the 
youth  and  freshness  of  life  into  dead,  dry  documents;  in 
the  skill  with  which  material  is  incorporated  and  merged 
into  the  narrative  itself;  finally,  in  the  gift,  possessed  by 
Sainte-Beuve  to  a  superlative  degree,  of  knowing  first  how 
to  choose,  and  next  how  to  emphasize,  the  trait  that  adds 
color  and  life. 

1Here  again,  it  is  a  question  of  caution,  tact,  and  fine  distinctions.  These 
crucial  moments  may  serve  as  natural  dividing  lines  in  a  biography,  on  con- 
dition that  we  do  not  neglect  to  bring  out  the  preparations  and  continuity. 


224  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

This  entire  programme,  or  rather  this  ideal,  is  expressed 
with  great  skill  in  an  unfamiliar  page  by  Taine,1  which  will 
be  the  best  possible  conclusion  to  these  remarks. 

To  paint  is  to  make  others  see,  and  it  is  a  special  art  to  make 
others  see  people  of  a  bygone  age.  Anyone  who  tries  it  should  be 
fitted  for  this  artist's  work  by  an  artist's  apprenticeship:  he 
should  in  his  youth  have  been  a  novelist  or  even  a  poet,  that  by 
just  right  he  may  perceive  easily  and  spontaneously  the  slightest 
distinctions  and  the  most  fragile  ties  of  sentiment ;  that,  little  by 
little,  the  advancing  years  and  the  intimate  communion  of  reflec- 
tion may  add  to  the  artist  in  him  the  psychologist ;  that  .  .  .  the 
scholarship  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  epicurism  of  curiosity, 
the  knowledge  of  man  and  of  men,  may  impart  to  him  an  exquisite 
and  unique  tact.  Thus  endowed  and  thus  equipped,  ...  he  should 
flit  round  his  personage,  noting  with  a  word  each  attitude,  each 
gesture,  and  each  look;  he  should  retrace  his  steps,  shading  his 
first  colors  with  new,  even  paler,  tints;  he  should  thus  work  by 
touching  up  and  touching  up  again,  never  tired  of  pursuing  the 
complex  and  changing  contour,  the  faint,  fleeting  light,  that  are  the 
sign  and,  as  it  were,  the  bloom  of  life. 

1This  page  in  which  Taine  draws  Sainte-Beuve's  portrait  was  included  in 
the  preface  to  the  first  edition  of  the  Essais  de  critique  et  d'histoire,  and  after- 
wards omitted.  V.  Giraud  reprints  it  in  his  Bibliographic  critique  de  Taine, 
and  in  his  Maitres  d'autrefois  et  d'aujourd'hui  (p.  109). 


CHAPTER  X 
QUESTIONS  OF  SUCCESS  AND  OF  INFLUENCE 

"Biographers  of  great  men",  said  Renan,  "are  as  a  rule 
satisfied  to  recount  the  life  of  their  subjects  while  on  earth, 
but  usually  another  life  should  be  added.  .  .  .  This  is  their 
life  after  death,  their  influence  on  the  world,  the  varied  for- 
tunes of  their  writings,  the  turn  given  by  these  writings  to 
other  minds,  .  .  .  the  impetus  they  have  added  at  different 
times  to  the  thoughts  of  men."1  In  these  lines,  written  in 
1845,  Renan  has  traced  the  complete  curriculum  of  a  study  in 
which  the  exigencies  of  historical  methods  are  multiple  and 
insistent.  It  is  no  longer  acceptable  to  'conclude'  a  mono- 
graph, a  study  of  the  life  and  works  of  some  author,  be 
he  of  the  first  or  of  the  tenth  rank,  by  a  few  scintillating 
pages  of  eloquent  but  vague  declamation  on  his  'influence,' 
as  has  been  done  in  hundreds  of  Ph.D.  theses  the  world 
over.  On  the  contrary,  in  treating  the  fortunes  and  influ- 
ence of  a  work  or  a  doctrine  a  certain  number  of  definite 
questions  should  be  considered:  What  sort  of  success  has 
the  work  enjoyed  ?  When,  how,  why,  did  the  success  begin 
and  end?  Did  it  correspond  to  a  real  and  durable  influ- 
ence? On  what  types  of  readers  was  it  exerted,  to  what 
degree,  and  in  what  fields?  How  have  the  work  and  the 
author  been  interpreted  by  each  generation?  Why  has  the 
work  affected  foreign  countries  differently  from  the  country 
of  its  origin  ?  Why  are  certain  works,  after  conquering  their 
own  countries  and  even  the  whole  of  Europe,  dead  and  gone 

1 E.  Renan,  Cahiers  de  jeunesse,  p.  134. 
225 


226  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

today?    Such  questions  are  of  great  importance  but  their 
complexity  is  almost  infinite. 

Indeed,  it  is  more  difficult  to  define  a  cut-and-dried  method 
for  this  type  of  problem  than  for  any  other.  Each  student 
must  map  out  his  own,  applicable  to  the  particular  case. 
Therefore  this  is  not  in  any  sense  a  chapter  on  method,  but 
rather  a  list  of  suggestions ;  and  it  will  accomplish  its  aim  if, 
far  from  simplifying  the  question,  it  shows  its  complexity 
and  difficulty.1 

DISTINCTION  BETWEEN  SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE 

The  first  precaution  is  to  distinguish  clearly  between  suc- 
cess and  influence.  Doubtless  they  are  not  always  opposed, 
—sometimes  they  are  even  inseparable, — but  oftener  than 
not  they  are  independent  of  each  other.  For  an  author's 
name  or  a  book  title  to  acquire  lasting  or  passing  fame  is  not 
the  same  thing  as  for  it  to  possess  the  vitality  that  assures 
continued  action. 

Success  is,  in  sum,  a  sociological  fact,  to  which  the  artistic, 
literary,  or  philosophical  value  of  a  work  too  often  contrib- 
utes nothing.  Success  means  simply  that,  from  a  number  of 
causes, — fashion,  advertising,  an  accord  with  the  aspirations 

1  In  connection  with  this  chapter  the  following  works  may  be  read :  F. 
Baldensperger,  La  Litterature  (Paris,  1913),  pp.  180-286;  G.  Renard,  La 
Methode  scientifique  de  I'histoire  litteraire  (1900),  chap,  vi,  pp.  76  ff.,  "Re- 
cherche des  eff ets  produits  par  une  oeuvre  litteraire " ;  P.  Stapf er,  Des  Reputa- 
tions  litteraires  (2  vols.)  (Paris,  1901);  G.  Lanson,  "L'Histoire  litteiaire  et 
la  sociologie,"  Revue  de  mitaphysique  et  de  morale,  1904,  especially  §  6,  p.  640, 
Loi  de  1'action  du  livre  sur  le  public;  P.  Hazard,  "Les  Recents  Travaux  en 
literature  comparee,"  Revue  universitaire,  1914,  pp.  112-124  and  212-222 
(good  suggestions  as  to  method)  ;  G.  Rageot,  Le  Succes  (1906)  ;  A.  Ferriere, 
"La  Psychologic  bibliologique,"  Archives  de  psychologic,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  101- 
132  (analysis  of  the  way  a  book  penetrates  into  the  public  mind) ;  G.  Tarde, 
L'Opinion  et  la  joule  (1901)  (accurate  psychological  observations  on  the  pub- 
lic as  a  social  fact) . 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  227 

and  requirements  of  a  certain  social  group, — a  work  has 
momentarily  become  the  'rage.'  This  phenomenon  the  his- 
torian should  try  to  interpret.  "Every  literary  success", 
wrote  Sainte-Beuve,  "has  a  reason,  good  or  bad,  that  ex- 
plains it,  excuses  it,  or  at  least  saves  it  from  absurdity.  This 
should  be  taken  into  account." 

Schopenhauer  divides  all  writers  into  three  groups — the 
"shooting  stars",  the  "planets",  and  the  "fixed  stars".  The 
first  produce  vivid  and  startling  effects  of  short  duration: 
we  behold  them;  we  cry,  "Look!" — and  they  are  gone  for- 
ever. Yet  even  if  the  literary  historian  finds  no  influence  to 
trace,  it  devolves  upon  him  to  give  a  plausible  reason  for  the 
success  itself.  He  must,  then,  in  each  instance  ask  some  such 
questions  as  these: 

1.  What  was  the  strange  suitability  of  the  work  to  its 
public  ?    How  did  it  fill  the  needs  of  its  readers  more  satis- 
factorily than  other  contemporary  works  of  superior  artistic 
and  philosophic  value  ? 

2 .  What  part  did  fashion  play  in  this  success  ?    If  a  fash- 
ion in  literature  really  existed  at  this  date,  in  what  way  did 
the  author  cater  to  this  transient  taste  ?     Does  his  desire  to 
please  suffice  to  explain  the  popularity  of  the  work,  and, 
when  the  fad  had  passed,  its  abatement? 

3.  How  fully  was  the  success  heralded  and  prolonged 
through    articles    before    and    reviews    after    its    publica- 
tion,1  'booming'  of  booksellers,  conversations  of   faithful 
adherents  ? 

4.  Why  has  the  success  dwindled  and  then  vanished  ? 

If  it  is  indisputable  that  success  is  not  synonymous  with 
influence,  it  is  no  less  evident  that  success  is  usually  the 

1KThe  people",  said  Diderot  to  Falconet,  "in  the  long  run  are  only  the 
echo  of  a  few  men  of  taste.  In  a  sense,  we  critics  and  historians  give  God's 
true  verdict." — SAINTE-BEUVE 


228  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

starting-point  of  influence.  Success  proves  the  adoption  of 
a  work  by  a  social  group,  which  finds  in  it  an  answer  to 
its  aspirations,  an  expression  of  its  unanimous  opinion.  By 
this  adoption  the  group  is  modified;  a  new  element  enters 
into  the  intellectual,  moral,  or  artistic  life  of  the  community 
and  makes  its  action  felt.  Thenceforth  influence  exists. 

DEFINITION  OF  INFLUENCE 

It  is  not  enough  to  draw  an  exact  line  between  success  and 
influence.  We  must  be  yet  more  definite :  a  certain  number 
of  actions  and  reactions  are  often  collectively  called  influ- 
ence which  in  reality  should  be  clearly  differentiated. 

The  influence  of  a  work  is  something  more  than  its  gen- 
eral diffusion.  There  may  be  acquaintance  and  curiosity 
without  the  real  permeation  that  is  influence.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  of  the  work  of  a  foreigner. 

Nor  is  influence  imitation.  Needless  to  say,  if  at  a  given 
moment  imitations  of  some  writer  or  of  some  literature 
spring  up  on  every  hand,  especially  if  they  continue  during 
a  protracted  interval,  these  imitations  may  be  taken  as  mani- 
festing a  genuine  influence.  And  yet  textual  borrowings 
may  have  no  bearing  whatever  on  the  inspiration  or  its 
artistic  elaboration. 

Influence  is,  in  truth,  something  more  profound,  and  gen- 
erally something  less  tangible.  "When",  said  Lanson,  "it 
chances  that  neither  previous  tradition  nor  individual  orig- 
inality accounts  for  a  sudden  modification,  and  that  the 
introduction  of  a  fragment  of  the  soul  or  of  the  taste  of 
another  nation  is  the  only  explanation  of  the  tendency  or 
the  form  that  has  been  remarked"1;  when  literary,  philo- 

1 "  Etudes  sur  les  rapports  de  la  litterature  f rancjaise  et  de  la  litterature  espa- 
gnole  au  XVIIe  siecle,"  Revue-  d'histoire  litteraire,  1896,  pp.  45-70.  See  page  47. 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  229 

sophic,  or  artistic  analysis  reveals  the  presence  of  an  element 
that  shifts  the  existing  equilibrium  and  orients  anew  the 
activity  of  writer,  genre,  or  literature, — then  we  may  say 
that  influence  exists. 

Influence  by  its  very  nature  does  not  always  declare  itself 
by  precise  and  well-defined  signs ;  its  study  does  not  admit 
of  the  same  exactness  as,  for  instance,  the  investigation  of 
sources.  Frequently,  it  consists  in  following  the  capricious, 
unexpected  meanderings  of  a  stream  whose  waters  are  led 
hither  and  thither  by  the  accidental  contour  of  the  ground 
and  take  their  color  from  the  various  tributaries  and  the 
soil  through  which  they  flow — at  times  even  disappearing 
from  view  for  a  space,  to  reappear  farther  on. 

I  do  not  recommend  to  beginners  problems  as  complex 
and  delicate  as  these;  they  demand  too  extensive  and  ad- 
vanced a  knowledge  not  only  of  one  complete  literature,  but 
of  several.  Yet  the  field  is  so  largely  uninvaded  that  it  is 
desirable  to  see  our  most  promising  young  scholars  actively 
and  courageously  working  there. 

It  need  hardly  be  added  that  the  study  of  influences  may 
accomplish  more  than  its  original  object  and  make  the 
student  look  far  beyond  the  limits  of  a  mere  literary  problem. 
To  see  how  a  work  is  judged,  received,  adopted  or  adapted, 
transformed  or  deformed,  to  analyze  the  successive  attitudes 
of  the  public,  the  fluctuations  of  opinion,  the  reactions  and 
contradictions,  is  to  penetrate  far  into  psychology.  It  com- 
pels us  to  reconstruct  the  different  social  groups,  to  enter 
deeply  into  the  personality  of  those  who  are  the  guides  or 
spokesmen  of  opinion,  to  piece  together  all  the  social,  aes- 
thetic, moral,  political,  or  economic  elements  that,  at  a  given 
moment,  have  decided,  increased,  modified,  or  stopped  some 
literary  influence. 


230  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Given  the  impracticability  of  laying  down  rules  of  method 
for  such  a  study  of  influence,  it  remains  possible  to  group  a 
few  remarks  as  follows: 

I.  Under  what  aspects  may  the  history  of  an  influence 
present  itself? 

II.  What  is  the  mechanism,  the  mode  of  action,  habitual 
to  literary  influences? 

III.  Do  any  practical  methods  of  tracing  and  measuring 
an  influence  exist? 

IV.  Lastly,  for  this  study  as  for  so  many  others,  are 
there  certain  special  precautions  against  error  and  misinter- 
pretation ? 


I.  How  MAY  AN  INFLUENCE  PRESENT  ITSELF? 

If  it  is  an  unthinkable  undertaking  to  enumerate  all  pos- 
sible examples  of  influence,  at  least  it  seems  possible  to  de- 
fine and  to  classify  a  certain  number  of  typical  cases.  Such 
a  classification  is  not  superfluous:  it  may  serve  as  a  sort  of 
formula  or  questionnaire  by  means  of  which  to  check  up  the 
influence  of  a  given  work ;  it  may  help  to  fit  the  book  into 
some  of  the  already  analyzed  categories. 

All  kinds  of  combinations  may  occur,  but  two  main  facts 
stand  out:  first,  each  literary  influence  passes  through  suc- 
cessive phases  of  eclipse  and  emergence,  alternating  with  an 
irregular  and  unforeseeable  rhythm;  next,  each  literary  in- 
fluence is  forwarded  or  held  back  according  as  it  strikes  more 
or  less  favorable  periods. 

i.  Eclipse  and  emergence.    Alfred  de  Vigny  wrote: 

Plots  d'amis  renaissants!    Puissent  mes  destinees 
Vous  amener  a  moi,  de  dix  en  dix  annees, 
Attentifs  a  mon  oeuvre,  et  pour  moi  c'est  assez. 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  231 

All  literary  works  have  a  destiny  somewhat  similar  to 
that  desired  by  Vigny.  Sometimes  the  eclipse  occurs  imme- 
diately after  a  writer's  death,  as  if  a  short  period  of  inaction, 
a  " preliminary  sleep",  were  the  first  step  toward  a  posthu- 
mous existence  of  the  kind  that  insures  influence.  Balzac's 
work  lay  dormant  for  a  time;  then  woke  to  glory  twenty- 
five  years  later,  "ripe",  says  H.  de  Regnier,  "for  the  fame 
that  he  sadly  and  magnificently  names  'the  sunshine  of 
the  dead'".1 

One  of  the  most  typical  examples  of  an  interrupted  and 
resuscitated  influence  is  that  of  Ronsard.2  After  the  period 
of  apotheosis  in  the  sixteenth  century,  when  everyone  went 
*  Ronsard  mad,'  the  influence  of  Malherbe  and  of  his  school 
paralyzed  Ronsard's  almost  completely.  Not  that  his  works 
entirely  disappeared.  Despite  their  condemnation  at  the 
hands  of  Boileau  and  Voltaire,  they  were  still  included  in 
libraries3  and  anthologies.  However,  like  Le  Roman  de  la 
Rose  and  other  texts  of  ancient  -French  literature  (also  to 
be  found  in  many  private  or  public  collections),  they  were 
merely  objects  looked  at  occasionally  with  curiosity  or 
respect, — perhaps  with  good-natured  condescension, — but 
counting  no  longer  as  vital,  telling  elements  of  literary  influ- 
ence. For  this  they  had  to  wait  until  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  when  a  general  veering  of  taste  and, 
above  all,  Sainte-Beuve's  rousing  trumpet-call  in  his  Tableau 
historique  et  critique  de  la  poesie  jranqaise  et  du  theatre  jran- 
qais  au  XVT  siecle  prepared  and  announced  the  resurrection 
of  Ronsard's  influence. 

aRead  some  delightful  pages  by  the  poet  Henri  de  Regnier,  in  Figures  et 
caracteres  (1901),  pp.  94-98. 

2 See  Fuchs,  "Comment  le  XVIIe  et  le  XVIIIe  siecles  ont  juge  Ronsard," 
Revue  de  la  renaissance,  1907,  pp.  228-238,  and  1908,  pp.  49-72. 

3  See  D.  Mornet,  "Les  Enseignements  des  bibliotheques  privees,"  Revue 
d'histoire  litteraire,  1910,  pp.  449-496,  especially  p.  483. 


232  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

It  is  needless  to  give  further  examples :  no  history  of  in- 
fluence flows  in  a  continuous  current.  We  must,  therefore, 
in  each  case  'plot  a  graph,'  determine  exactly  the  periods  of 
eclipse  and  of  resurrection,  seek  their  causes,  and  discover 
whether,  when  the  influence  declines,  the  work  falls  com- 
pletely into  desuetude  and  disappears  from  circulation,  or 
whether  it  merely  ceases  for  a  certain  time  to  be  in  accord 
with  public  taste  and  aspirations. 

2.  Assimilation  or  rejection  by  the  taste  of  an  epoch. 
Another  very  general  phenomenon  that  we  encounter  is  this : 
literary  taste  and  the  public  mind  have  times  of  greater  or 
less  susceptibility  to  the  influence  both  of  previous  works 
and  of  a  foreign  literature.  Periods  of  withdrawal  and  con- 
centration have  been  justly  contrasted  with  times  of  lively 
intellectual  'free  trade'  among  the  nations:1  periods,  on  the 
one  hand,  when  a  literature  seems  sufficient  unto  itself,  or  at 
least  reduces  to  the  minimum  its  models  and  sources  of  in- 
spiration ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  times  of  vast  curiosity  for 
varied  or  unexpected  forms  of  art  and  of  thought — times 
when  influences  repressed  hitherto  may  freely  develop  and 
expand.  There  are  four  periods  in  French  literature  that, 
for  reasons  differing  in  each  case,  seem  to  be  more  impervi- 
ous to  influence  than  others.  These  periods  are  1660,  and 
the  classical  era  in  all  its  glory;  1800,  and  the  Pseudoclassi- 
cism  of  the  Empire;  1845,  and  the  years  succeeding  Roman- 
ticism; 1871,  and  the  aftermath  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  years  from  about  1615  to  1640,  when 
Italy  and  Spain  were  treasure-houses  for  the  French  poets ; 
from  1750  to  1789  and  from  1815  to  1840,  when  cosmo- 
politan inspiration  combined  with  the  revival  of  many  na- 
tional influences;  the  later  age  of  universal  artistic  and 
scientific  curiosity,  which  is  in  some  respects  responsible  for 

XF.  Baldensperger,  Etudes  d'histoire  litteraire  (1907),  Preface,  p.  xxiv. 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  233 

the  literary  anarchy  of  the  last  years  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury,— these  are  the  times  when  literary  influences  found 
the  soil  more  favorable  for  taking  root,  spreading,  and 
flowering  afresh. 

The  preceding  remarks  make  it  clear  that,  in  general,  we 
have  to  deal  with  epochs  of  success  and  of  failure,  with 
influences  that  develop  or  shrink,  dart  forward,  slow  up,  or 
stop.  Here  we  find  a  means  of  classifying  cases  and  examples. 

a.  Active  influences,  (i)  The  influence  no  less  than  the 
success  of  a  work  may  originate  in  propaganda  by  one  or 
more  of  the  critics.  A  writer,  heretofore  quite  unnoticed,  is 
launched  by  some  book  or  article;  readers  flock  to  him; 
authors  imitate  him  or  find  inspiration  in  his  writings,  and 
works  that  have  slumbered  in  the  undisturbed  peace  that  is 
so  close  to  neglect  become  dominant.  This  happens  in  every 
country.  Friedrich  Logau,  the  German  epigrammatist,  is  un- 
der obligation  to  Lessing,  and  Manzoni  to  Goethe.  In  France 
the  famous  Provengal  poet  Mistral  became  an  active  centre 
of  influence  thanks  largely  to  Lamartine.  The  pessimistic 
and  thoughtful  poetry  of  Mme  Ackermann  might  not  have 
produced  the  effect  that  it  did  had  it  not  been  discovered  by 
the  philosopher  Caro ;  the  critic  Scherer  performed  the  same 
service  for  Amiel.  Again,  should  not  the  fervor  with  which 
many  young  writers  turned  to  Maeterlinck  as  a  source  of 
inspiration  be  dated  from  an  article  by  Octave  Mirbeau  in 
the  Figaro?1 

(2)  Sometimes  a  writer  acquires  no  influence  in  his  own 
country  until  he  has  made  a  detour  and  passed  through  an 
interval  of  adoption  in  a  foreign  land.  Germany,  for  in- 
stance, gave  to  the  Frenchmen  Gobineau  and  Claude  Tillier 
the  fame  that  France  at  first  denied  them;  whereas  Hoff- 
mann with  his  Phantasiestiicke  exerted  in  France  a  far  wider 

1  Several  of  these  examples  are  suggested  by  Stapfer  or  Baldensperger. 


234  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

influence  than  in  Germany.  At  a  time  when  Heinrich  Heine 
could  write,  "In  Germany  today  Hoffmann  has  no  vogue 
whatever",  all  the  great  French  writers  of  the  Romantic 
period  were  reading  him  and  were  affected  by  him.1  Heine 
himself  and  Edgar  Allan  Poe  were  helped  to  gain  influence 
in  their  own  countries  by  recognition  in  France. 

What  takes  place?  Is  it  not  simply  that  influence  pre- 
supposes the  harmony  between  the  work  and  the  public  that 
we  have  already  spoken  of,  and  that  this  harmony,  nonexist- 
ent in  the  mother  country,  is  found  in  a  group,  a  public,  a 
literary  school,  in  some  neighboring  country?  This  is  true 
of  Hoffmann : 

His  works  were  published  in  France  at  a  moment  when  the  pub- 
lic had  become  sufficiently  accustomed  to  the  supernatural  to  be 
able  to  appreciate  this  element  in  them;  the  Romantic  doctrines 
then  holding  full  sway  were  in  perfect  accord  with  these  writings. 
His  translators  were  able  and  intelligent  men  who  knew  how  to 
enhance  their  compatriots'  interest  in  his  works.2 

Thus  an  influence  was  assured.  Besides,  it  usually  follows 
that  a  work,  after  its  foreign  adoption,  finds  at  last  in  its 
native  country  conditions  favorable  for  the  spread  of  its 
influence. 

(3)  An  influence  may  be  fixed  and  durably  maintained  by 
some  established  tradition.  In  each  country  there  are  cer- 
tain national  standard  works.  They  form  a  nucleus  for  the 
public  libraries;  they  are  kept  in  stock  by  booksellers  and 
bought  by  a  wide  range  of  readers ;  they  become  part  of  the 
literary  programmes  of  schools,  colleges,  and  universities. 
The  last-mentioned  fact  involves  a  vitality  of  influence  too 
often  unappreciated.  In  this  connection  we  must  consider 

*M.  Breuillac,  "Hoffmann  en  France,"  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1906, 
pp.  427-457.   See  page  445. 
2M.  Breuillac,  loc.  cit.  p.  457. 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  235 

the  countries,  such  as  France,  where  a  single  centralized 
authority  regulates  the  authors  and  works  to  be  read  and 
studied.  There  is  no  doubt  that  on  the  day  when  Hugo,  Vigny, 
and  Lamartine  were  added  to  the  list  of  authors  required 
for  French  colleges  and  universities  their  influence  on  the 
younger  generation  was  signally  increased.  A  Latin  bias  is 
noticeable  in  all  writers  formed  in  Jesuit  colleges,  whereas 
the  pupils  of  the  Jansenists  of  Port-Royal  lean  toward 
Greece.  The  history  of  foreign  influences  in  France  is  cer- 
tainly linked  with  the  history  of  the  development  of  modern 
languages  and  foreign  literature  in  the  educational  institu- 
tions. Some  definite  investigations  of  these  questions  would 
lead  to  interesting  discoveries. 

(4)  The  chief  and  most  frequent  cause  of  influence  is  the 
prevalence  in  the  general  public  or  in  a  social  group,  at  a 
given  moment  and  for  a  variable  length  of  time,  of  a  need,  a 
craving,  a  trend,  satisfied  by  the  literary  work  in  question. 
This  is  why  every  study  of  influence  that  is  not  to  remain 
irremediably  superficial  should  be  largely  a  study  of  social 
psychology.  Why  did  some  book  that  today  seems  dead,  un- 
readable, intolerable,  to  all  save  historians  by  profession, 
have  such  deep,  such  powerful  effect  upon  literature,  society, 
and  life?  Because  it  appeared  at  the  opportune  moment, 
responded  to  the  call  of  a  public  that  yielded  to  its  influence 
without  restraint.  Even  fervent  Rousseauists  realize  that  it 
requires  an  effort  of  will  to  read  La  Nouvelle  Helo'ise  from 
cover  to  cover  "without  the  book's  dropping  from  their 
hands";  yet  the  six  small  volumes  of  1761  not  only  enjoyed 
in  their  day  the  most  immense  success  of  the  century,  but 
their  influence  was  profound,  even  on  the  lives  of  the 
humblest  readers.  The  reason  is  that  there  was  an  interplay 
at  that  date  between  the  public  and  the  new  book:  every 
tendency,  every  emotion,  every  ideal,  formulated  in  the  novel 


236  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

existed  already  in  the  community,  but  in  a  nebulous,  inar- 
ticulate state.  The  literature  of  the  time  was  incapable  of 
voicing  these  confused  needs.  Rousseau  comes  ;  to  the  vague 
searchings  he  gives  impassioned,  eloquent,  feverish  expres- 
sion. His  pulsating  phrases  utter  all  that  the  souls  about 
him  are  struggling  to  say.1 

He  did  not  create  the  taste  for  emotion,  but  he  made  it  tyran- 
nical. Before  him,  people  persuaded  themselves  that  emotion  was 
one  of  the  legitimate  and  profound  joys  of  life.  After  him,  they 
knew  that  it  was  the  best  and  only  joy.2 

Lamartine's  Meditations,  as  well,  came  in  response  to  a 
demand,  and  its  immense  influence  at  the  outset  was  due 
to  its  perfect  agreement  with  a  public  awaiting  just  such 
a  work. 

In  other  cases  a  work  does  not  express  a  wide-felt  need 
but  diffuses  certain  ideas  or  certain  bents  hitherto  confined 
to  groups  of  specialists  or  technicians.3  A  good  share  of 
Voltaire's  influence  on  the  public  of  his  time  arises  from  this 
source.  There  are  no  economic,  political,  or  social  ideas 
found  in  his  works  that  many  other  writers  did  not  voice  at 


the  article  by  D.  Mornet,  "Les  Admirateurs  inconnus  de  La  Nouvelle 
Helo'ise,"  Revue  du  mots,  1909,  pp.  535-554.  Mornet,  having  access  to  the 
vast  collection  of  letters  written  to  Rousseau  after  the  publication  of  his  novel, 
is  able  to  show  how  fundamentally  the  influence  of  Rousseau  is  bound  up  with 
the  preexisting  conditions  of  public  psychology.  See  also  his  article  entitled 
"  L'Influence  de  Rousseau  au  XVIII6  siecle,"  Annales  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau, 
Vol.  VIII. 

2  Annales  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau,  loc.  cit.  p.  52. 

3  Before  the  time  of  Rousseau,  it  was  continually  said  that  women  should 
nurse  their  children  ;  that  the  study  of  facts  was  being  obscured  by  the  study 
of  words  ;  that  the  abuse  of  Latin  made  young  people  stupid  ;  that  it  was  im- 
portant to  open  our  eyes  to  the  world  and  to  life;  and  that  travel,  and  the 
study  of  the  sciences,  of  physics,  of  history,  or  of  a  trade,  were  worth  more 
than  synecdoches  and  catachreses.    Suddenly  Emile  gave  clamorous  utterance 
to  the  quarrel  that  until  then  had  stirred  only  specialists  or  a  few  of  the  more 
curious.  —  D.  Mornet,  in  Annales  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau,  loc.  cit.  p.  48 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  237 

the  same  epoch ;  but  he  knew  how  to  make  them  active  and 
effective ;  he  knew  how  to  give  them  an  assimilable,  attrac- 
tive, seductive  guise.  And  the  public,  quite  prepared  to  take 
an  interest  in  such  questions,  though  until  then  unsuccess- 
ful in  making  them  its  own,  heard,  followed,  and  adopted 
Voltaire. 

(5)  Lastly,  the  influence  of  true,  irradiating  genius  must 
be  taken  into  account,  even  if  the  far-reaching  influence 
often  exercised  by  mediocrities  or <  minors  'proves  that  genius 
and  influence  stand  in  no  invariable  relation  of  cause  and 
effect.  There  are  writers  who  exert  over  the  public  the  same 
magnetism  as  an  orator  over  his  audience.  This  expansive 
and  all-conquering  power  writers  such  as  Montaigne,  Pascal, 
Rousseau,  and  Chateaubriand  have  imparted  to  their  work. 
Literary  history,  says  P.  M.  Masson,  would  be  an  inexact 
science  if  "it  neglected  the  decisive  action  of  the  heroes  of 
literature  and  the  renovating  power  that  their  genius  pos- 
sesses. Rousseau  is  one  of  the  striking  examples.  He  ap- 
peared abruptly  in  a  desert  solitude;  and,  nevertheless, 
below  him  on  every  hand  it  was  as  if  clouds  were  supporting 
and  impelling  him ;  it  was  perhaps  he  who  gave  French  litera- 
ture its  most  powerful  shock  and  influence ;  it  was  perhaps 
he  for  whom  French  literature  had  been  most  continuously 
preparing."1 

b.  Retarded  or  arrested  influences,  (i)  There  are  in- 
fluences, as  well  as  successes,  that  last  no  longer  than  a 
shooting  star.  A  book  may  for  several  years  be  widely  read 
and  received  with  warm  approval.  Its  imitators  may  be 
numerous;  its  trace  may  be  clear,  and  the  more  easily  fol- 
lowed because  of  its  shortness.  Whether  the  demand  is  a 
temporary  fashion  or  infatuation,  whether  the  book  is  soon 

1Z,a  Formation  religieuse  de  Rousseau  (in  La  Religion  de  J,-J.  Rousseau), 
Avant-propos,  p.  vi.  1916. 


238  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

engulfed  by  a  more  potent  influence,  or  whether  the  attach- 
ment of  the  public  is  only  superficial,  the  book  quickly  sinks 
into  oblivion.  Saint-EvremoncTs  influence  was  profound, 
widespread,  fruitful,  but  brief.  From  1705  to  1750  the  large 
number  of  editions  and  of  imitations,  the  trail  of  Saint- 
Evremond's  ideas  discernible  on  all  sides,  bespeak  the  vigor 
and  activity  of  his  influence ;  after  these  forty-five  years  there 
was  an  almost  total  cessation.  The  obvious  reason  is  that, 
beginning  in  1750,  other  works — more  especially  the  Ency- 
clopedic— superseded  his,  and  relegated  them  to  the  com- 
pany of  those  books  that  are  now  mere  printed  pages  and  no 
longer  quickening  and  living  forces. 

(2)  A  case  of  frequent  occurrence  may  be  termed  the 
retarded  influence.  It  is  the  converse  of  the  brilliant  but 
fleeting  influences  of  which  we  have  spoken.  Very  often  an 
author  begins  by  preaching  or  singing  to  the  desert  air.  His 
voice  wakes  no  echo ;  he  is  either  ignored  or  slighted.  Mean- 
while the  new  truth  "goes  on  quietly  working  its  way  and, 
like  an  acid,  undermining  everything  around  it.  From  time 
to  time  a  crash  is  heard :  the  old  error  comes  tottering  to  the 
ground,  and  suddenly  the  new  fabric  of  thought  stands 
revealed,  as  though  it  were  a  monument  just  uncovered."1 
Such  in  substance  is  the  history  of  many  influences,  even 
when  not  so  dramatically  staged.  Many  famous  writers,  and 
books  that  have  since  become  immortal,  have  had  to  wait 
their  chance ;  the  historian's  task  is  to  discover  why.  He  will 
find  in  many  cases  that  at  the  date  of  publication  the  neces- 
sary harmony  between  book  and  public  was  lacking.  It  may 
be  a  question  of  closely  'sealed'  works,  impossible  to  break 
open  or  absorb  without  effort  and  silent  thought.  Les  Des- 
tinies of  Vigny  was  among  these ;  it  was  not  until  the  begin- 

1  Schopenhauer,  The  Art  of  Literature  (London,  1891 ) ,  translated  by  T.  Bai- 
ley Saunders.    For  the  whole  passage  see  pages  119-120. 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  239 

ning  of  the  twentieth  century  that  the  book  found  a  public 
ready  to  assimilate  it.  Again,  it  may  be  a  question  of  works 
that  in  their  day  answered  to  no  general  call :  the  writer  was 
in  advance  of  his  times;  the  passing  years  were  needed  to 
bring  him  the  public  that  during  his  lifetime  he  had  never 
had.  Today  in  France  we  consider  the  Dominique  of  Fro- 
mentin  one  of  the  three  or  four  great  novels  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Yet  at  its  publication  it  was  greeted  by  a  mere 
handful  of  discreet  admirers.  Stendhal  with  keen  vision  pre- 
dicted that  his  novels  would  find  favor  about  1880:  he  mis- 
calculated by  only  a  few  years  the  rise  of  that '  Stendhalian ' 
movement  whose  influence  on  recent  French  literature  is 
considerable.  Such  works  have  revived  with  accrued  value, 
with  fresh  power  to  influence,  "like  building-lots  that  profit 
by  exorbitant  advances,  much  less  because  of  their  own  soil 
than  because  of  the  vast  development  of  their  surroundings".1 
(3)  We  have  seen  what  role  critics  may  play  in  promoting 
an  influence.  Inversely,  they  may  be  responsible  for  its 
subsidence  or  cessation.  Exact  account  must  be  taken  of 
these  forces  of  resistance,  which  may  well  prove  deadly.  We 
find  toward  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
Night  Thoughts  of  Edward  Young,  after  a  period  of  amazing 
vogue  and  widespread  influence  in  France,  little  by  little 
losing  ground ;  the  reason  is  that  Mme  de  Stae'l  and  Chateau- 
briand by  their  unsparing  criticisms  dealt  the  work  a  hard 
blow.2  Likewise,  in  a  remarkable  article  entitled  Rousseau 
en  Angleterre,3  Edmund  Gosse  points  out  that  Burke's  de- 
nunciation "  prominently  brought  forward  by  the  first  of 
English  orators,  in  a  work  which  was  read  by  every  educated 

1  Baldensperger,  La  Litterature,  p.  227. 

2 See  W.  Thomas,  Le  Poete  Edward  Young  (Paris,  1902),  and  Baldensper- 
ger, Etudes  d'histoire  litteraire  (first  series). 

3Annales  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau,  Vol.  VIII.  Published,  in  the  original  Eng- 
lish, in  Fortnightly  Review,  July,  1912. 


240  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

man  in  Great  Britain,  sapped  the  reputation  of  Rousseau 
.  .  .,  and  led  to  the  gradual  decline  of  his  fame  in  England  all 
down  the  nineteenth  century".  More  recently,  in  France, 
we  have  witnessed  a  still  more  characteristic  phenomenon: 
the  novelist  Georges  Ohnet  had  an  immense  clientele,  chiefly 
through  Le  Mattre  de  forges, — printed  in  tens  of  thousands, 
— and  was  beginning  to  have  disciples.  An  article  by  Jules 
Lemaitre,1  displaying  sparkling  wit  but  scathingly  caustic, 
'killed'  Georges  Ohnet,  and,  as  has  been  aptly  said,  if  people 
read  him  nowadays,  they  do  not  boast  about  it. 

(4)  The  opposing  force  that  causes  literary  influences  to 
languish  or  die  is  found  also  in  events  themselves.  In  the 
article  quoted  above,  Edmund  Gosse  explains  that,  although 
Rousseau's  influence  managed  to  survive  with  a  somewhat 
precarious  existence  the  attacks  of  Burke,  its  destruction 
was  completed  by  the  social  and  moral  evolution  in  England, 
the  sterner  code  of  conduct  that  came  in,  "as  a  reaction  to 
the  swinish  coarseness  of  the  late  Georgian  period".  A  simi- 
lar mishap  has  been  remarked  in  the  history  of  Mme  de 
StaePs  influence.2  She  succeeded  in  fixing  in  France  a  cer- 
tain idea  of  Germany,  and  created  the  fervent  enthusiasm  of 
the  romanticist  generations  for  the  country  of  Werther, 
Faust,  and  Oberon,  of  Kant,  Klopstock,  and  J.  P.  Richter. 
But  in  1840  the  Treaty  of  London  opened  the  eyes  of  France ; 
the  "Teutomania"  was  denounced,  the  thread  of  enchant- 
ment snapped, — and  with  it  the  influence  of  Mme  de  StaePs 
famous  book.  The  World  War  will  be  found  to  have 
had  an  analogous  effect  upon  the  influence  in  France  of 
Nietzsche  and,  in  fact,  of  German  philosophy  and  literature 
in  general. 

1  Revue  bleue,  June,  1885,  p.  803,  and  Les  Contemporains,  Vol.  V  (1889). 
2J.  Texte,  "Les  Origines  de  1'influence  allemande  dans  la  literature  fran- 
<;aise  du  XIXe  siecle,"  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1898,  pp.  i  ff. 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  241 

(5)  Lastly,  an  influence  may  be  obstructed  or  superseded 
by  other  more  powerful  influences.  A  typical  example  is 
given  in  the  chapter  entitled  "L'lnfluence  de  Voltaire,"  with 
which  Lanson  concludes  his  admirable  little  volume  on  the 
author  of  Candide.  The  influence  of  Voltaire  as  dramatist 
is  checked,  first,  by  that  of  the  English  drama  and  the  drame 
bourgeois]  next,  during  the  Revolution  and  the  Empire,  by 
the  partisans  of  pure  Classicism,  who  were  opposed  to  in- 
novating tendencies;  finally,  by  the  Romantic  drama.  As 
poet,  Voltaire  could  make  no  headway  against  Delille  in 
didactic  poetry,  against  J.  B.  Rousseau  in  the  ode,  or  against 
Ossianism  and  the  pre-Romanticists  in  elegiac  verse.  His  in- 
fluence as  novelist  was  submerged  by  that  of  La  Nouvelle 
Helo'ise  and  by  the  "torrent  of  sensibility"  that  swept  its 
readers  along.  To  offset  this,  as  journalist,  pamphleteer,  and 
controversialist  he  has  always  had  a  clear  field  and  has  won 
receptive  and  eager  disciples.1 

c.  Special  cases  and  general  remarks,  (i)  The  action  of 
a  writer  is  rarely  '  single-tracked.'  He  may  make  himself 
felt  in  several  genres]  he  may  in  the  same  genre  have  pro- 
duced widely  different  works,  with  widely  different  effects: 
Notre-Dame  de  Paris  has  not  the  same  influence  as  Les 
Miserables.  Again,  a  writer's  personality  may  be  so  complex 
that  his  influences  in  various  fields  are  mutually  prejudicial : 
there  is  Fontenelle  the  wit;  Fontenelle  the  conscientious 
scholar;  Fontenelle  the  daring  and  often  original  philoso- 
pher. Maigron,  analyzing  Fontenelle's  influences,2  indicates 
the  cleavage  between  them.  He  shows  that  Fontenelle  the 
wit  has  restricted  the  influence  of  Fontenelle  the  scholar  and 


1See  Lanson,  Voltaire,  pp.  206-209. 

2Fontenelle,  I'homme,  I'oeuvre,  I'influence  (Paris,  1906).  The  chapter  en- 
titled "L'Influence  de  Fontenelle"  appeared  previously,  in  the  Revue  d'his- 
toire  litteraire,  1906,  pp.  193-227. 


242  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

philosopher,  and  that,  although  active  on  every  side,  he  is 
paramount  nowhere.  Influences  are  often  streams,  splitting 
at  the  delta  into  many  branches,  some  to  water  fertile  re- 
gions, others  to  be  lost  in  the  sand. 

(2)  A  curious  case  is  that  in  which  the  name  of  a  writer 
dominates  a  given  public  to  the  point  of  leading  historians 
and  critics  to  believe  in  his  influence,  when  there  is  doubt 
that  he  was  even  known.   Lanson  has  brought  to  light  an 
exact  instance  of  this  in  connection  with  'Gongorism'  in 
France.    At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  Gon- 
gora  was,  he  says,  "the  big  name,  the  best-known  and  most 
popular  writer  of  Spanish  poetry.    Nobody  read  him,  or 
knew  his  genius  at  first  hand.    But  there  was  his  name ;  and 
this  name  became  representative  of  the  thought  or  the  spirit 
of  his  country;   ...  it  epitomized  the  effect  of  Spanish 
poetry  upon  the  predeux.  .  .  .  'Gongorism'  was  made  an 
element  of  the  predeux  turn  of  mind."1 

(3)  Finally,  we  must  be  on  our  guard  against  the  'super- 
stition of  masterpieces.'    Certain  of  the  most  fruitful  and 
dynamic  influences  have  been  exerted  by  obscure,  forgotten, 
mediocre  authors, — by  those  that  criticism  classifies  under 
the  slightly  disdainful  head  of  '  minors.'    They  have  repeat- 
edly been  the  vehicles  for  ideas, — popularizers  and  propa- 
gandists.  Whether  because  they  curried  favor  instead  of 
triumphantly  snatching  it,  whether  because  they  never  ex- 
ceeded the  average  level,  or  simply  because  our  present 
classification  corresponds  in  no  way  to  that  formed  by  public 
taste  at  other  eras,2  many  of  these  forgotten  and  neglected 

x"  Etudes  sur  les  rapports  de  la  litterature  franqaise  et  de  la  litterature 
espagnole  au  XVIIe  siecle:  Gongora,"  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1896, 

PP.  321-331- 

2  See  H.  Rigault,  Histoire  de  la  querelle  des  anciens  et  des  modernes  (Paris, 
1856),  p.  300:  "Sir  William  Temple  made  a  list  of  the  most  famous  authors, 
Italian,  English,  Spanish,  and  French :  this  is  what  he  compiled :  in  Italy, 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  243 

writers  were  in  their  own  time  active  leavens.  It  is  idle  to 
suppose  that  the  famous  books  and  masterpieces  have  ex- 
erted the  sole  or  even  the  principal  influence  over  subse- 
quent generations.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Essai  sur 
les  mceurs  or  Candide,  Le  Contrat  social  or  even  La  Nouvelle 
Helo'ise,  were  not  privileged  works,  shaping  more  definitely 
than  any  others  the  thoughts  and  the  emotions  of  their  con- 
temporaries :  the  Spectacle  de  la  nature  by  the  Abbe  Pluche, 
Le  Chef  d'ceuvre  d'un  inconnu  by  Themiseul  de  Saint- 
Hyacinte,  De  I'usage  des  romans  by  Lenglet-Dufresnoy, 
acted  for  a  time,  upon  certain  groups,  with  an  effect  at  least 
equal  to  that  of  the  more  enduring  works  just  enumerated.1 
A  list  of  the  books  read  by  a  woman  like  Mme  Roland  or  a  poet 
like  Lamartine  is  a  convincing  proof  of  this.2  Nevertheless,  in 
the  long  run  the  great  works  have  their  revenge:  if  the 
minors  enjoy  for  a  period  a  wide  influence,  it  is  never  dur- 
able or  deep. 

II.  MECHANISM  AND  MODE  OF  ACTION  OF  LITERARY 

INFLUENCES 

How  is  the  action  of  the  book  (an  individual  work)  estab- 
lished over  the  public — a  social  group  ?  How  does  the  pub- 
lic, how  do  successive  publics,  take  possession  of  the  book? 
What  do  they  choose?  What  do  they  leave?  How  is  the 
work  accepted,  transformed,  deformed,  transfigured,  until 

Boccaccio,  Machiavelli,  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi;  in  England,  Philip  Sidney,  Bacon, 
and  Selden;  in  Spain,  Cervantes  and  Guevara;  in  France,  Rabelais,  Voiture, 
La  Rochefoucauld,  and  Bussy-Rabutin.  Shakespeare,  Milton,  Dryden,  Des- 
cartes, Pascal,  Corneille,  Racine,  Moliere,  Boileau,  La  Fontaine,  Dante,  Tasso, 
Lope  de  Vega,  Calderon,  have  no  place  on  his  roll  of  honor." 

iMornet,  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1910,  p.  470. 

2Memoires  (ed.  Perroud,  1905),  Vol.  I,  and  observations  by  Lanson,  in 
Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1905,  pp.  341-342;  also  Lamartine,  Meditations 
(ed.  Lanson),  Introduction. 


244  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

its  actual  influence  frequently  corresponds  in  no  way  to  what 
the  author  wrote  or  intended?  We  have  to  do,  of  course, 
not  with  a  regular  chronological  evolution,  but  rather  with 
sundry  phases  succeeding  one  another  in  variable  order,  and 
composing  a  series,  complete  or  incomplete,  which  may  even 
recur  after  an  interval  of  time.  An  analysis  of  the  nature 
and  functioning  of  such  a  process  may  be  helpful. 

i.  Simplification;  elimination;  choice.  A  preliminary  proc- 
ess1 of  simplification  and  elimination  takes  place  in  some 
such  way  as  this :  the  social  groups  on  which  a  literary  work 
may  react  have,  as  Baldensperger  says,  only  "a  limited 
memory",  incapable  of  retaining  in  their  entirety  the  huge 
structures  of  many  of  the  important  works.  Besides  the 
aesthetic  or  ethical  value,  a  thousand  reasons  decide  which 
parts  are  to  remain  active  and  which  are  to  sink  into  sleep 
and  inertia;  that  there  is  this  choice,  however,  is  a  fact. 
Of  Voltaire  there  remain  Candide,  the  Dictionnaire  philoso- 
phique,  a  selection  from  his  Lettres,  perhaps  a  tragedy  or 
two.  Yet  in  his  fifty-two  volumes  are  doubtless  many  pages 
inferior  to  these  in  no  respect ;  it  matters  little,  for  the  Vol- 
taire who  is  active  is  the  Voltaire  of  the  works  just  men- 
tioned. Today  do  the  Abbe  Prevost  and  Lamartine  stand 
for  anything  more  than  Manon  Lescaut  and  the  Medita- 
tions? Renan  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  "after  the  lapse  of 
a  century  a  genius  of  the  first  order  is  reduced  to  two  or 
three  pages".2  At  any  rate,  this  simplification  tends  toward 
a  specialization  of  the  line  of  influence:  Taine,  the  critic; 
Lamartine,  the  lyrist;  La  Bruyere,  the  moralist, — what 
could  be  more  simple?  What  matter  that  Taine  was  not 
merely  a  critic,  Lamartine  a  lyrist,  La  Bruyere  a  moralist? 

1Well  analyzed  by  P.  Stapfer,  Des  Reputations  litteraires,  and  by  Balden- 
sperger, La  Literature,  pp.  268  ff. 

2L'Avenir  de  la  science,  p.  208  (English  translation,  Boston,  1891). 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  245 

Their  influences  will  flow  in  the  directions  assigned  to  them 
by  the  public.  This  process  of  elimination  may  take  various 
forms. 

Perhaps  a  writer's  works  will  not  all  evince  effective  action 
at  the  same  time.  Whereas  Pascal's  Provinciates  had  at  first 
far  more  influence  than  his  Pensees,  their  roles  were  after- 
wards reversed.1  Voltaire  the  pamphleteer  continues  active ; 
Voltaire  the  dramatist  is  almost  dead.  Finally,  for  all  for- 
eign works,  translation  is  obviously  an  important,  and  al- 
most mechanical,  element  of  elimination. 

In  other  cases,  following  the  modification  of  the  environ- 
ment and  the  transformation  of  public  opinion,  a  versatile 
author  will  have  one  part  of  his  work  dropped  after  another. 
Fenelon's  fortunes  during  the  eighteenth  century2  offer  a 
striking  illustration  of  this.  At  first  the  ' active'  Fenelon  was 
an  almost  exclusively  ' literary'  Fenelon,  the  author  of  Tele- 
maque.  His  prestige  and  his  irradiation  were  primarily  on 
the  artistic  side.  When  the  key  to  Telemaque  was  better 
known,  people  reveled  in  the  eloquent  ingenuity  of  the 
author.  Then  attention  was  drawn  to  other  works,  notably 
the  Dialogues  des  Morts,  in  which  the  public  discovered  dar- 
ing assertions  that  tickled  its  fancy  and  altered  the  image 
of  the  first  Fenelon.  Toward  1750  the  change  was  complete. 
The  Directions  pour  la  conscience  d'un  roi  had  just  been 
published;  Telemaque  was  decidedly  obsolete;  the  genera- 
tion that  welcomed  the  Encyclopedic,  applauded  Rousseau's 
first  Discours,  and  was  enraptured  by  Voltaire  was  not  the 
generation  that  had  known  Louis  XIV  and  Fenelon  himself. 
Thenceforth  "the  controversies  of  the  Jansenists  had  dropped 

iV.  Giraud,  Pascal,  I'homme,  I'ceuvre,  I'influence  (Fribourg,  1898),  Lesson 
XIX,  pp.  135  ff. 

2 Minutely  studied  in  A.  Ch£rel,  Fenelon  au  XV III"  siecle:  son  prestige, 
son  influence.  Paris,  1917. 


246  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

into  the  background.  ...  To  the  eyes  of  the  Encyclopae- 
dists, the  seventeenth  century  derived  its  greatest  glory  from 
the  'ancestors'  of  their  new  doctrines,  whom  they  discerned 
in  the  grand  siecle.  They  found  in  Fenelon  one  of  these 
ancestors  .  .  .:  he  became  a  'great  man'  and  the  patron 
saint  of  '  Tolerance,'  displaying,  in  the  heart  of  Christianity, 
a  'philosophic'  charity;  he  was  indulgent  to  mankind,  be- 
lieving in  nature,  indifferent  to  dogmas,  interested  in  the 
welfare  of  the  people,  hating  force  in  itself  and  in  all  its 
uses,  confusing  authority  with  force  only  to  condemn  them 
both."1  Of  Fenelon's  entire  works,  after  all  these  elimina- 
tions and  transformations,  but  a  limited  number  of  texts  and 
impressions  remain, — just  enough  to  inspire  the  tragedy  of 
Fenelon,  by  M.  J.  de  Chenier,  and  to  allow  the  members  of 
the  National  Convention  to  place  the  mystical  prelate  among 
the  saints  of  the  Revolutionary  calendar.  The  reputation  of 
Fenelon  has  become  a  legend.2 

In  these  changes  the  critics  may  play  an  important  part. 
They  may  help  to  fix  the  traits  by  which  a  writer  or  a  work 
shall  thenceforth  be  known,  and  prescribe  their  choice  to  at 
least  a  part  of  the  public.  Ramsay,  in  his  Life  of  Fenelon, 
drew  a  portrait  that  the  public  seized  upon.  To  the  generation 
of  Romanticists,  the  poets  of  the  Pleiade  have  appeared  largely 
as  Sainte-Beuve  depicted  them  in  his  Tableau  de  la  poesie 
frangaise  au  XVIII6  siecle.  Voltaire  is  to  a  great  extent  re- 
sponsible for  the  Shakespeare  that  influenced  France  during 
the  eighteenth  century.  When,  in  1873,  J°nn  Morley  pub- 
lished his  monograph  on  Jean- Jacques  Rousseau,  he  decided 
in  no  small  measure  the  aspect  under  which  England  from 
that  date  was  to  picture  the  author  of  the  Confessions. 

*A.  Cherel,  loc.  cit.  p.  608. 

2  Compare  the  history  of  Pope's  influence  on  French  literature  as  sketched 
by  G.  Charlier,  "De  Pope  a  Lamartine,"  Revue  de  Belgique,  December,  1906. 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  247 

Nothing  is  more  illuminating  than  to  follow  these  suc- 
cessive oscillations  of  public  opinion,  and  no  better  example 
may  be  offered  than  Goethe  en  France?  in  which  Balden- 
sperger  shows  how,  epoch  by  epoch,  French  readers  have 
picked  from  the  immense  treasury  of  Goethe's  works  what 
best  suited  their  preoccupations.  There  is  the  uneasy,  de- 
pressed generation  that  adopted  Werther;  the  next,  that 
preferred  Faust,  one  group  more  interested  in  the  fantastic, 
another  in  the  philosophic,  element.  There  is  the  generation 
of  1848,  under  the  spell  of  science  and  rationalism,  which, 
neglecting  the  works  delighted  in  by  its  elders,  turned  to 
other  sources.  There  are  the  impassive  Parnassians,  whom 
Goethe  satisfied  as  thoroughly  as  he  did  their  predecessors, 
and  there  are  the  thinkers  of  yesterday,  who,  working  often 
in  totally  different  directions,  found  a  rich  harvest  in  his 
inexhaustible  work.2 

2.  The  image  that  each  epoch  or  each  milieu  forms  of  a 
work.  Pascal  said  that  "we  desire  to  live  an  imaginary  life 
in  the  thoughts  of  others".  His  aphorism  may  be  taken  al- 
most literally.  Writers  after  their  death  live  a  life  whose 
development  is  unforeseeable  and  often  capricious.  The  his- 
tory of  an  influence  is  commonly  less  the  history  of  the  ideas 
of  a  writer  than  that  of  the  successive  errors  and  false  con- 
structions based  on  those  ideas.  There  is  an  incessant  phenom- 
enon of  'refraction':  a  work  suffers  deformation  in  passing 
from  epoch  to  epoch  or  from  one  environment  to  another. 
This  is  true  not  only  of  literary  works  in  general  but  of 

1  Paris,  1904.  See  also  Esteve,  Byron  et  le  romantisme  franc,ais  (Paris, 
1907) ;  Van  Tieghem,  Ossian  en  France  (2  vols.)  (Paris,  1917)  ;  Tronchon,  La 
Fortune  intellectuelle  de  Herder  en  France  (Paris,  1920)  ;  J.  M.  Carre,  Goethe 
en  Angleterre  (Paris,  1920). 

2 See  Lanson,  "La  Fonction  des  influences  etrangeres  dans  le  developpement 
de  la  litterature  franchise,"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  February  15,  1917, 
pp.  800-806. 


248  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

philosophical  or  literary  doctrines.  The  Spinoza  that  pos- 
sessed a  decisive  influence  over  the  formation  of  the  French 
eighteenth  century  is  not  the  Spinoza  that  the  historian  of 
today  discovers  in  the  pages  of  the  Ethica  or  of  the  Tracta- 
tus  Theologico-Politicus:  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  Spinoza 
imagined  and  constructed  by  his  contemporaries,  through 
accumulated  errors  and  misinterpretations.1  The  same  may 
be  said  of  every  system  of  philosophy, — of  Rousseau  as  of 
Kant,  of  Berkeley  as  of  Auguste  Comte.  "If  it  is  interest- 
ing", said  Brunetiere,  "to  know  what  Descartes  thought,  it 
is  far  more  interesting  to  know  what  his  contemporaries  be- 
lieved that  he  thought.  For  doctrines  and  systems  act  only 
in  proportion  as  they  are  understood,  and  those  who  adopt 
them  are  no  less  their  inventors  than  those  who  teach  them."2 

A  striking  illustration  is  the  religious  influence  of  Rous- 
seau, traced  in  a  masterly  fashion  by  P.  M.  Masson.3  The 
Rousseau  who  is  active  after  1778  is  entirely  different  from 
the  true  Rousseau  whom  Masson  begins  by  resuscitating: 
from  that  time  forward  it  is  "the  Rousseau  of  the  public" — 
a  public  that  is  permeated  by  him.  As  these  people  are  of 
infinite  variety,  their  aspirations  and  their  tendencies  complex 
and  sometimes  contradictory,  the  natural  result  is  that  the  in- 
fluence of  Rousseau,  separated  from  Rousseau  himself,  is  di- 
verted into  channels  complex  and  contradictory  in  their  turn. 

Lastly,  the  same  is  true  of  works  that  are  acclimated  to 
a  foreign  country.4  Joseph  de  Maistre  said  that  "each  nation 

1See  Lanson's  analyses,  "Origines  et  premieres  manifestations  de  1'esprit 
philosophique,"  Revue  des  cours  et  conferences,  1908,  pp.  241-254. 

2  "  Jansenistes  et  cartesiens,"  Etudes  critiques,  Vol.  IV,  p.  119. 

3  La  Religion  de  J.-J.  Rousseau,  Vol.  III.    1916. 

4  An  important  place  must  be  given  here  to  translators.    The  deformations 
to  which  they  subject  a  work  decide  in  no  small  degree  its  subsequent  fortunes. 
These  deformations,  caused  by  religious,  political,  artistic,  or  literary  scruples, 
are  frequently  the  very  condition  of  a  foreign  public's  accepting  and  assimi- 
lating the  work.    See  on  this  subject  the  judicious  remarks  of  P.  Hazard  in 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  249 

is  for  its  neighbors  a  contemporary  posterity".  In  passing 
from  one  country  to  another,  the  influence  of  a  work  under- 
goes the  same  vicissitudes  and  the  same  transformations  as 
in  passing  from  one  century  to  the  next.  Every  careful  study 
of  comparative  literature  piles  up  fresh  proof  of  this.  It  will 
suffice  here  to  recall  the  infinite  series  of  mistranslations  and 
nonadaptations  that  characterize  the  history  of  Shakespeare 
in  France ;  yet  it  is  this  poorly  adapted,  poorly  understood, 
and  even  ridiculously  caricatured  Shakespeare  that  has  been 
one  of  the  most  active  leavens  in  the  transformation  of  the 
French  theatre.1 

In  a  wise  and  stimulating  page,  which  is  the  best  conclu- 
sion to  the  foregoing  remarks,  Lanson  vividly  describes  the 
social  character  of  the  influence  of  a  literary  work : 

It  is  not  the  author  that  determines  the  efficacy  of  a  book.  .  .  . 
The  Descartes  or  the  Rousseau  that  acts  is  neither  Descartes  nor 
Rousseau,  but  the  personality  that  the  public  reads  into  his  book 
and  calls  by  his  name.  This  personality  depends  on  the  public, 
and  changes  as  the  public  changes.  Each  generation  .  .  .  makes 
a  Descartes  and  a  Rousseau  for  itself,  according  to  its  own  need 

his  article  already  cited,  in  Revue  universitaire,  1914,  p.  2 13 :  "  There  is  an  under- 
lying reason  for  the  liberties  taken  by  so  many  translators,  liberties  at  which 
we  rail  without  understanding  their  necessity  at  the  given  epoch.  .  .  .  Trans- 
lators mar  the  text  because,  practically,  there  is  nothing  else  for  them  to 
do.  .  .  .  We  should  be  grateful  to  them  for  the  opportune  wisdom  that  alone 
has  permitted  the  smooth  acclimating  of  the  product  of  a  foreign  taste."  Du 
Resnel,  the  translator  of  Pope,  prides  himself  on  the  way  he  has  suited  Pope 
to  French  taste;  Voltaire  congratulates  Letourneur,  the  translator  of  Young, 
on  having  "set  to  rights  this  collection  of  high-flown,  obscure  commonplaces". 
Hazard  hopes  that  essays  on  translators  will  become  more  numerous :  "  What 
changes  do  they  make  in  the  texts?  What  suppressions  and  what  modifica- 
tions? Why?  Because  of  what  customs,  what  doctrines?  From  one  trans- 
lation to  the  next  is  there  any  improvement  ?  At  what  epoch  and  under  what 
conditions  has  an  exact  decalcomania  of  a  foreign  work  been  made  ?  " 

1See  J.  J.  Jusserand,  Shakespeare  en  France  sous  I'ancien  regime  (Paris, 
1898) ;  and  Baldensperger, "  Esquisse  d'une  histoire  de  Shakespeare  en  France," 
JLtudes  d'histoire  litteraire  (second  series,  1910),  p.  155. 


250  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

and  in  its  own  image.  .  .  .  The  connection  established  is  not  that 
existing  at  the  time  of  composition  .  .  .  between  the  work  and 
the  author:  the  work  is  exclusively  connected  with  the  public, 
which  continually  retouches,  remodels,  enriches,  or  impoverishes 
it.  The  author's  real  intention  produces  only  a  part  of  the  total 
effect,  and  sometimes  almost  completely  disappears.  To  follow 
the  fortunes  of  a  work,  therefore,  is  frequently  less  to  watch  what 
happens  to  an  individual  thought  in  the  common  domain  of 
thinkers  than  to  read  by  means  of  some  recording  device  certain 
modifications  in  the  social  environment.1 

III.  TRACING  AND  MEASURING  LITERARY  INFLUENCES 

It  is  always  easy  to  agree  that  the  influence  of  such  and 
such  a  writer  has  been  " considerable";  but  "how  shall  we 
grasp  and  measure  this  influence  ?  Above  all,  how  distinguish 
it  from  what  it  resembles  and  yet  is  not?  How  make  it  evi- 
dent by  incontestable,  precise  facts?  Finally,  how  define 
it  otherwise  than  in  vague  epithets,  guided  by  purely  per- 
sonal impressions  and  general  considerations  ?":!  To  answer 
these  questions,  there  are  no  unfailing  rules  or  processes: 
there  are  only  certain  sources  of  information  that  it  is  ad- 
visable to  seek ;  certain  directions  that  it  is  well  to  look  in ; 
certain  fields  that  will  repay  attention. 

i.  Bibliographical  statistics;  history  of  printing;  history 
of  libraries;  various  documents.  Every  study  of  influence 
should  begin  with  minute  statistics  of  successive  editions  and 
reprints,  including — whenever  obtainable — information  as 
to  the  number  of  copies  printed  and  sold.  For  works  subse- 
quent to  1811,  consult  the  Journal  de  la  librairie.  For  all 
others,  information  may  be  less  exact  but  is  usually  acces- 

1"L'Histoire  litteraire  et  la  sociologie,"  Revue  de  metaphysique  et  de  mo- 
rale, 1904,  p.  631. 

2V.  Giraud,  Essai  sur  Taine  (ist  ed.),  p.  125.    Paris,  1902. 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  251 

sible.  The  multiplicity  of  editions,  the  interruption  and  re- 
sumption of  their  sequence,  are  definite  points  in  the  '  curve' 
of  an  influence,  especially  when  these  data  are  explained  and 
confirmed  by  additional  means. 

For  instance,  a  fairly  accurate  idea  of  the  diffusion  of 
Voltaire's  and  Rousseau's  works,  and  the  number  of  their 
readers,  has  been  formed  from  statistics  given  in  a  memoire 
written  at  the  time  of  the  Restoration.1  To  a  great  extent 
it  has  been  possible  to  follow  the  sale  and  the  penetration 
of  Vigny's  works,  at  least  during  a  certain  period:  figures  of 
the  various  printings,  of  the  copies  sold,  of  the  rapidity  of 
the  sale,  are  procurable  and  have  been  examined  with  care.2 

Ronsard  had  no  edition  during  the  great  classical  period  ; 
beginning  with  1626,  certain  poems  were  included  in  an- 
thologies, which  proves  that  his  complete  works  were  no 
longer  demanded  by  the  public.3  In  the  space  of  ten  years 
La  Bruyere  was  edited  in  Belgium  six  times.4  Light  is 
thrown  on  the  history  of  Fenelon's  influence  by  the  biblio- 
graphical study  of  his  editions:  not  to  mention  the  innumer- 
able reprints  of  Telemaque,  we  find  the  Directions  pour  la 
conscience  d'un  roi  republished  at  least  sixteen  times  between 
1747  and  1789;  and,  after  a  long  interval  (1789-1805) 
"during  which  there  was  no  question  of  directing  the  con- 
sciences of  kings",  edited  again  in  1805,  1806,  and  1810.° 
I  need  not  recall  here  works  such  as  La  Nouvelle  Helo'ise  or 
Candide,  whose  diffusion  is  registered  almost  automatically 


Lanson,  Voltaire,  p.  205. 

2J.  Marsan,  "A.  de  Vigny  et  G.  H.  Charpentier  (the  publisher),"  Revue 
d'histoire  litteraire,  1913,  pp.  51-64. 

3  See  F.  Lachevre,  Bibliographic  de  recueils  collectifs  de  poesies  (4  vols.) 
(Paris,  1901-1905),  and  the  "  Comptes-rendus  "  of  his  work  in  the  Revue 
d'histoire  litteraire,  1902,  p.  697. 

4G.  Servois,  "Les  Editions  beiges  des  Caracteres  de  La  Bruyere,"  Biblio- 
graphic moderne,  1908,  pp.  5-31. 

6A.  Ch6rel,  Fenelon  au  XVHI*  siecle,  pp.  341  ff. 


252  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

in  bibliographical  statistics.1  Is  it  not  instructive  to  find 
that  La  Princesse  de  Cloves  enjoyed  its  greatest  popularity 
in  the  flood  tide  of  Romanticism  ?  -' 

Although  valuable  aid  can  be  had  from  bibliography  and 
from  the  history  of  printing,3  this  sort  of  statistical  informa- 
tion should  be  handled  with  caution,  accepted  with  reserve, 
and  its  value  justly  gauged. 

a.  For  many  modern  works,  the  booksellers'  announce- 
ments are  only  fallacious  advertising.    A  comic  author  once 
introduced  as  one  of  his  characters  a  poet  who  had  had 
"eleven  editions  in  ten  days".   This  seems  hardly  an  exag- 
geration when  we  think  of  certain  statements  of  present-day 
booksellers. 

b.  It  is  hazardous  to  make  the  number  of  editions  a  basis 
for  calculating  the  number  of  readers.    How  many  books 
are  bought  and  never  read,  and,  inversely,  how  many  books 
are  read  and  never  bought ! 

c.  A  large  number  of  editions  does  not  necessarily  mean 
the  distribution  of  a  proportionate  number  of  copies.    Of 
some  work  perhaps  only  twenty  to  one  hundred  copies  de 
luxe  are  struck  off ;  of  another,  as  many  as  twenty  or  thirty 
thousand.    Mornet  points  out  that  the  original  edition  of 
La  Nouvelle  Helo'ise  (1761)  was  of  four  thousand  copies; 
the  edition  of  1764,  of  only  seven  hundred  and  fifty. 

d.  Nor  does  a  small  number  of  editions  necessarily  mean 
that  no  influence  has  been  exercised.    On  the  contrary,  the 


*D.  Mornet,  "Le  Texte  de  La  Nouvelle  Helo'ise,  et  les  editions  du  XVIIIe 
siecle,"  Annales  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau,  1909,  pp.  iff.;  Candide  (A.  Morize 
edition,  1913),  Introduction. 

2H.  Ashton,  "Essai  de  bibliographic  des  oeuvres  de  Mme  de  la  Fayette," 
Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1913,  pp.  890-918. 

3See  Lanson's  suggestive  "Comptes-rendus"  on  A.  Claudin's  Histoire  de 
I'imprimerie  en  France  au  XVe  et  au  XVle  siecle,  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire, 
1902,  pp.  312-315,  and  1905,  pp.  522-525. 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  253 

influence  may  have  been  as  deep  as  the  material  diffusion 
was  limited.    Such  is  the  case  for  Kant: 

The  influence  of  Kant  on  the  French  mind  escapes  the  investi- 
gator who  looks  for  indications  in  library  catalogues  or  in  the 
literary  columns  of  the  newspapers:  its  action  was  deep,  not  ex- 
tended ;  it  was  none  the  less  one  of  the  most  powerful  influences 
manifested  during  the  nineteenth  century.1 

e.  Lastly,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  at  certain  epochs 
before  the  freedom  of  the  press  had  been  achieved,  a  book 
might  exert  an  extended  influence  through  its  circulation 
by  manuscript.2 

One  interesting  source  of  information  is  the  study  of 
libraries — especially  private  libraries — at  a  given  date.  The 
collation,  the  comparison,  and  the  examination  of  their  cata- 
logues, which  we  possess  in  great  numbers,  may,  if  necessary 
precautions  are  taken,  lead  to  stimulating  conclusions.3 

Curious  and  amusing  evidence  is  often  furnished  by  iconog- 
raphy, the  history  of  caricature,  or  the  history  of  the  bibe- 
lot. The  graphic  representations  of  a  great  writer  help  us 
to  grasp  the  idea  formed  of  him  by  some  generation :  Rous- 
seau rusticating  among  garden  or  forest  foliage;  Voltaire 
fluently  descanting,  surrounded  by  an  admiring  circle; 
Lamartine  on  the  borders  of  the  "Lac";  Victor  Hugo  seated 

1P.  Hazard,  in  Revue  universitaire,  1914,  p.  123. 

2  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  transition  period  between  the  seventeenth 
and  the  eighteenth  century  in  France.  See  Lanson,  "Questions  diverses  sur 
1'histoire  de  1'esprit  philosophique,"  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1912,  pp.  1-29  ; 
"It  would  be  worth  while  for  someone  to  make  a  list  of  extant  copies,  with — 
when  procurable — their  dates  or  the  date  of  the  original  from  which  they  are 
derived,  thus  enabling  us  to  conjecture  from  the  number  of  copies  the  possible 
diffusion  of  ideas"  (pp.  2-3). 

3SeeD.Mornet,  "  Les  Enseignements  des  bibliotheques  privees  (1750-1780)," 
Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1910,  pp.  449-496.  This,  so  far  as  I  know,  is  the 
first  systematic  treatment  of  the  question. 


254  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

alone,  diminutive,  on  an  immense  rock,  facing  the  infinite 
ocean,  —  these  are  documents  of  no  mean  interest.  Even  if 
there  is  nothing  very  'literary'  about  knowing  that  at  the 
time  of  the  Revolution  Rousseau's  bust  was  used  to  decorate 
ink-bottles,  or  that  Hugo  was  transformed  into  a  pipe  bowl, 
this  at  least  makes  it  possible  in  a  certain  degree  to  watch 
the  popularization  of  a  famous  writer.1  Again,  we  find  a 
representation  of  this  kind  in  plays  or  fiction  where  a  great 
writer  is  given  the  role  of  hero.  Moliere,  Fenelon,2  Rous- 
seau,3 —  shall  I  add  Geffroy  Rudel,  Villon,  Cyrano  de  Ber- 
gerac,  and  George  Sand?  —  and  others  still,  have  had  that 
honor.  These  images,  necessarily  distorted,  are  evidences  of 
influence. 

2.  Journals  and  reviews;  evidence  from  criticism;  cate- 
gories of  admirers.  We  shall  next  question  the  periodical 
press,  —  newspapers  and  reviews.  They  will  tell  us  of  the 
immediate  success  of  a  work,  of  its  reception  by  the  public, 
of  the  continued  enthusiasm  or  the  reaction  that  increased  or 
decreased  its  influence.4  Newspapers  possess  the  double  in- 
terest of  reflecting  with  considerable  accuracy  the  average 
opinion  of  certain  social  groups,  and  of  showing  through  the 
medium  of  these  groups  the  diffusion  and  influence  of  lit- 
erary works.5  The  power  of  dissemination  of  the  periodical 
press  is,  and  always  has  been,  immense.  Voltaire  speaks  of 
one  hundred  and  seventy-three  newspapers  that  in  his  day 


G.  Desnoiresterres,  Iconographie  voltairienne  (1879)  ;  F.  de  Girardin, 
Iconographie  de  J.-J.  Rousseau  (2  vols.)  (1909)  ;  H.  Buffenoir,  Les  Portraits 
de  J.-J.  Rousseau  (1913)  ;  Beuve  and  Daragon,  Victor  Hugo  par  le  bibelot 
(1902). 

2  See  A.  Ch£rel,  Fcnelon  au  XVIII*  siecle,  pp.  341  ff. 

3  See  A.  A.  Pons,  /.-/.  Rousseau  et  le  theatre.    1909. 

4  See,  for  example,  P.  Van  Tieghem,  "L'Annee  litteraire"   (1754-1790} 
comme  intermediate  en  France  des  literatures  etrangeres.    1917. 

5  See  Loth,  La  France  et  I'esprit  franfais  juges  par  le  "Mercure  de  Wie- 
"  1773-1787.   Paris,  1913. 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  255 

affected  public  opinion.  The  number  of  volumes  of  journals 
published  from  1750  to  1780  has  been  computed  at  fifty 
thousand  ;  the  figures  would  be  no  less  formidable  for  the 
period  of  Romanticism.1  This  material  was  "doubtless  an 
obscure  mass,  and  rarely  reread  ;  yet,  month  by  month,  and 
fortnight  by  fortnight,  it  relentlessly  fashioned  a  multitude 
of  minds".2  The  interest  of  the  newspapers  in  this  respect  is 
heightened  whenever  we  are  able  to  procure  a  list  of  sub- 
scribers from  which  to  learn  the  class  of  readers  affected.3 

Attention  should  next  be  directed  toward  the  critics  and 
toward  all  those  who,  under  whatever  title,  have  expressed 
an  opinion,  favorable  or  unfavorable,  upon  the  work  in  ques- 
tion.4 We  must  weigh  their  authority,  measure  their  strength 
as  propagandists,  and  define  their  role  in  the  launching  of  an 
author,  or  in  the  decline  and  disappearance  of  his  influence.5 

We  must,  moreover,  look  beyond  pure  literary  opinion  and, 
by  describing  the  various  categories  of  admirers,6  analyze 
the  reactions  of  opinion  in  general.  Were  the  readers  of  the 
book  men  of  letters  or  men  of  the  world?  of  the  middle 


C.  M.  Des  Granges,  Le  Romantisme  et  la  critique.   La  Presse  lit- 
teraire  sous  la  Restauration.   Paris,  1907. 

2D.  Mornet,  "Les  Enseignements  des  bibliotheques  privees  (1750-1780)," 
Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1910,  p.  478. 

3  See,  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  societe  d'histoire  moderne  et  contemporaine,  a 
list  of  subscribers  to  the  Mercure  de  France.   There  is  a  similar  list  in  the 
Journal  etranger,  1755. 

4  See  the  contribution,  already  cited,  of  Fuchs,  Comment  le  XVII"  et  le 
XVIIIe  siedes  ont  juge  Ronsard;  J.  Boulenger,  "Rabelais  a  travers  les  ages," 
Revue  des  livres  anciens,  Vol.  II  (1914),  No.  i  ;  P.  Champion,  "Du  succes  de 
Pceuvre  de  Charles  d'Orleans"  (Melanges  Picot,  1913),  Vol.  I,  p.  409;  G.  D. 
Morris,  Fenimore  Cooper  et  Edgar  Poe  d'apres  la  critique  fran$aise  du  XIXe 
siecle  (Paris,  1912). 

5  It  may  be  added  here  that  biographical  representations  sometimes  extend 
or  perpetuate  influences.   Such  is  certainly  the  case  with  Boswell's  Life  of 
Johnson. 

6  1  borrow  the  expression  from  E.  Hennequin,  La  Critique  scientifique, 
P-  237- 


256  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

class  or  of  high  rank?  women  or  young  men?  scholars  or 
ill-educated?  of  a  religious  cast  of  mind  or  skeptical  free- 
thinkers? Had  it  admirers  in  one  category  only,  as  the 
poems  of  Voiture  among  the  precieuses,  or  was  it  so  varied 
that  its  influence  extended  to  many  categories,  as  Rousseau's 
works  found  an  echo  in  emotional  but  unbelieving  souls,  in 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  and  in  the  world  of  the  rational- 
istic and  irreligious  'philosophers'?  This  chapter  of  our 
study  of  influences  will  certainly  be  one  of  the  most  fas- 
cinating and  rich. 

3.  Biographical  information.    The  personal  activities  of  a 
writer,  his  travels  (especially  in  foreign  countries),  the  part 
played  by  him  in  the  literary  circles  of  his  time,  are  often 
important  elements  of  influence:   the  visits  of  Voltaire  to 
England  and  to  Germany,  of  Dickens  and  of  Turgenev  to 
France,  of  Chateaubriand  to  London,  of  Victor  Hugo,  and  of 
the  other  writers  exiled  after  December  2,  1851,  to  Belgium 
or  elsewhere,  certainly  quickened  their  literary  action  in  the 
countries  visited. 

4.  Determination  of  an  influence  through  the  study  of  the 
sources  of  later  writers.    An  obvious  means  of  tracing  an 
influence  is  through  studying  the  sources  of  later  writers. 
Borrowings,  imitations,  and  inspirations,  admitted  or  un- 
acknowledged, vague  or  precise,  help  to  mark  the  trail  that 
a  writer  has  left  through  the  history  of  thought  and  of  art. 
The  study  of  the  sources  of  Ronsard  is  valuable  for  the  his- 
tory of  Marot's  influence ; 1  the  documents  on  the  sources  of 
Cyrano  de  Bergerac  or  of  Swift,  for  Rabelais's ; 2  the  Lettres 
philosophiques  of  Voltaire,  for  the  history  of  English  influ- 

aSee  H.  Guy,  "Les  Sources  franchises  de  Ronsard,"  Revue  d'histoire  lit- 
ter aire,  1902,  pp.  217-256. 

2 See  P.  Toldo,  "Les  Voyages  merveilleux  de  Cyrano  de  Bergerac  et  de 
Swift  et  leurs  rapports  avec  le  livre  de  Rabelais,"  Revue  des  Etudes  rabelai- 
siennes,  1906,  pp.  295-334. 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  257 

ence;1  the  Profession  de  foi  du  vicaire  Savoyard?  for  Des- 
cartes, Condillac,  and  many  others ;  the  poems  of  Vigny,  for 
Chenier3  or  Byron4;  and  Lamartine,  for  Ossian.5 

We  may  include  also  the  cases  where  a  literary  work  in- 
spires not  another  literary  work  but  a  painting,  a  piece  of 
sculpture,  a  musical  composition.  Pictures,  statues,  operas, 
and  symphonies  frequently  reveal  an  unexpected  extension 
of  the  influence  of  a  literary  masterpiece. 

5.  Reaction  of  foreign  opinion.  Investigations  naturally 
should  not  be  restricted  to  the  country  to  which  the  work  is 
indigenous.  They  cannot  be  complete  before  answering,  as 
fully  as  possible,  the  following  questions :  How  did  the  work 
become  known  in  foreign  countries?  When  was  it  trans- 
lated? By  whom?  With  what  skill  and  success?  Was  it 
commented  upon  by  the  press  (newspapers  and  reviews)  ? 
Was  it  read  in  the  original?  Was  it  adapted?  If  so,  in 
what  did  the  adaptations  consist?  What  sort  of  deforma- 
tions or  transformations  has  the  work  undergone  ?  Has  for- 
eign criticism  agreed  or  disagreed  with  opinion  in  its  native 
country?  Did  the  work  merely  arouse  curiosity  or  did  it 
exert  a  genuine  influence  ?  Was  it  imitated  or  really  assimi- 
lated? Translations,  adaptations,  reactions,  and  criticisms, 
— these  are  some  of  the  subjects  on  which  we  should  ques- 
tion foreign  countries.6 

^Lettres  philosophiques  (ed.  Lanson).    Commentary. 

2P.  M.  Masson  edition. 

3  P.  M.  Masson,  "L'Influence  d'Andre  Chenier  sur  A.  de  Vigny,"  Revue 
d'histoire  litteraire,  1009,  pp.  1-48. 

4E.  Esteve,  Byron  et  le  romantisme  fran$ais.    Paris,  1907. 

5  P.  Van  Tieghem,  Ossian  en  France,  Vol.  II.    Paris,  1917. 

6 Besides  the  works  already  cited  (Goethe  en  France  etc),  see  contributions 
such  as  Bouvy,  Voltaire  et  I'ltalie  (1898)  ;  Kont,  Voltaire  en  Hongrie  (Con- 
gres  d'histoire  comparee,  1900);  Whibley,  "Rabelais  en  Angleterre,"  Revue 
des  etudes  rabelaisiennes,  1903;  Ashton,  Du  Bartas  en  Angleterre  (1908); 
D.  F.  Canfield,  Corneille  and  Racine  in  England  (New  York,  1904)  ;  and,  in 
the  Manuel  bibliographique  of  Lanson,  Nos.  5175-5192  ("Moliere  a  1'etran- 


258  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

6.  Refutations;  disputes;  negative  influences.  An  influ- 
ence is  manifested  not  only  by  imitations  and  assimilations 
but  also  by  the  opposition  it  provokes,  by  the  repugnance 
it  excites,  by  the  disputes  it  causes.    A  genius  of  Taine's 
calibre  reacts  not  only  on  those  who  become  his  disciples  but 
on  all  those  who  struggle  in  the  grip  of  his  imperious  mind, 
who  revolt,  who  find  reasons  for  dissociating  themselves 
from  him.1    For  many  writers  of  deep  and  lasting  action — 
Moliere,   Fenelon,   Rousseau,  Voltaire,   Renan — the  para- 
graphs in  Lanson's  Manuel  entitled  " Polemiques,"  "Refu- 
tations,"  etc.   offer  excellent  material    for   any  study   of 
influence. 

7.  Study  of  the  public ;  intellectual  environment ;  histori- 
cal conditions;  contradictory  or  more  powerful  influences. 
Finally,  a  word  remains  to  be  said  as  to  three  branches  of 
study  that  cannot  accurately  be  termed  means  or  methods 
of  tracing  or  estimating  an  influence  but  are  indispensable 
types  of  auxiliary  research. 

The  first  is  the  psychological  study  of  the  reading-publics 
and  of  the  intellectual  atmosphere  with  which  a  work  comes 
in  contact.  To  what  social  groups  do  the  readers  belong? 
How  cultivated  are  they  ?  What  are  their  needs  and  aspira- 
tions? their  favorite  books?  the  general  orientation  of  their 
opinions  and  tastes?2 

ger"),  5363  ("Boileau  et  Lessing"),  SSn  ("La  Fontaine  en  Allemagne  et  en 
Angleterre"),  11,152-11,168  ("Rousseau  a  l'6tranger"),  17,570-17,573  ("Vic- 
tor Hugo  a  1'etranger"),  etc. 

1See  a  good  example  in  Levi-Malvano,  Montesquieu  e  Machiavelli  (Biblio- 
theque  de  1'Institut  franqais  de  Florence)  (Paris,  1912).  The  influence  of 
Machiavelli  on  Montesquieu  is  shown  less  by  what  Montesquieu  has  taken 
from  him  than  by  what  he  has  rejected.  Many  of  his  affirmations  are  only 
negations  of  Machiavelli. 

2 What  picture  does  a  foreign  influence  give  of  its  own  country?  See 
G.  Chinard,  L'Exotisme  amiricain  dans  la  litterature  franqaise  au  XVle  siecle 
(1911),  and  L'Amerique  et  le  reve  exotique  dans  la  litterature  franfaise  (1913) ; 
A.  Bisi,  L'ltalie  et  le  romantisme  jranfais  (Milan,  1914). 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  259 

The  next  is  the  investigation  of  historical  events  and 
conditions — political,  economic,  or  religious — that  modify 
environment  and  public,  preparing,  checking,  hastening, 
rehabilitating,  the  influence  of  a  literary  work. 

The  last  is  the  examination  of  other  literary  influences 
that  are  at  large  at  the  same  moment, — influences  that 
sometimes  strengthen,  sometimes  neutralize,  sometimes  over- 
balance, the  one  that  we  are  studying.  The  influence  of  Rous- 
seau blocks  that  of  Voltaire  in  certain  genres,  whereas  it 
aids  that  of  Senancour  or  Mme  de  Stael.  There  are  phenom- 
ena of  rivalry  and  phenomena  of  mutual  assistance. 

IV.  POSSIBLE  ERRORS  AND  NECESSARY  PRECAUTIONS 

Certain  students  are  obsessed  by  an  influence,  as  others 
are  by  a  source.  Instead  of  discovering  it  where  it  is  really 
to  be  found,  they  see  it  on  all  sides  just  where  they  wish  to 
see  it.  They  conclude  some  contribution  on  a  hitherto  over- 
looked author  by  the  triumphant  assertion  that  he  is  re- 
sponsible for  nearly  everything  written  or  thought  after  his 
day.  Such  works  obstruct  our  view  of  the  interesting  but 
less  numerous  instances  where  the  influence  is  genuine  and 
fruitful. 

If  we  believe  certain  scholars,  it  is  Lamennais  who  'made' 
Hugo  and  Lamartine.  Rousseau  as  well  has  been  held  re- 
sponsible for  a  multitude  of  things — literary  doctrines  and 
political  crimes,  sentimental  revolutions  and  new  designs  in 
gardens — for  which  his  responsibility  is,  to  say  the  least, 
shared  with  others.  E.  Martinenche  has  written  a  good  book 
entitled  La  Comedie  espagnole  en  France  de  Hardy  a  Racine? 
which,  however,  is  impaired  by  his  "  systematic  effort  to  dis- 
cover Spain  in  every  direction"  (even  in  Horace,  Cinna,  and 

1  Paris,  1901. 


260  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Polyeucte),  and  by  his  failure  to  "distinguish  in  Corneille's 
plays  between  what  has  been  borrowed,  adapted,  suggested, 
and  what  is  the  normal  and  necessary  development  of  Cor- 
neille's original  conceptions".1  Even  the  excellent  work,  by 
Cherel,  entitled  Fenelon  au  XVIIIe  siecle,  which  in  many 
ways  is  a  model  for  all  studies  of  influence,  does  not  entirely 
escape  this  danger.  No  writer  who  comes  after  Fenelon  can 
express  a  literary,  religious,  or  political  idea  that  is  not 
claimed  by  Cherel  as  Fenelon's  if  he  can  find  the  slightest 
excuse.  He  minimizes  the  fact  that  many  of  these  ideas  be- 
long no  more  to  Fenelon  than  to  ten  or  a  hundred  others; 
that  they  form  a  part  of  that  common  and  anonymous  store 
on  which  every  writer  is  obliged  to  draw. 

I  find  some  judicious  remarks,  widely  applicable,  in  an 
article  entitled  "Montaigne  et  les  poetes  dramatiques  anglais 
du  temps  de  Shakespeare,"2  in  which  Villey  endeavors  to 
discover  and  to  measure  the  influence  of  the  English  trans- 
lation of  Florio.3  That  Shakespeare  was  familiar  with  parts 
of  Montaigne  there  can  be  no  doubt :  it  has  been  recognized 
since  the  eighteenth  century  that  a  passage  of  The  Tempest 
is  assuredly  taken  from  the  Essais.  Since  it  is  hardly  con- 
ceivable that  Montaigne's  influence  is  so  limited,  hunting 
for  Montaigne  in  Shakespeare  has  become  a  sort  of  game: 
a  fantastic  number  of  parallels  have  been  amassed,  and,  from 
Stedefeld  (1871)  to  J.  M.  Robertson  (1909),  theories  of 
increasing  audacity  have  been  based  on  supposed  resem- 
blances. These  theories  are  of  value  for  the  study  of  Mon- 
taigne's influence,  says  Villey,  "if  the  resemblances  are  well 


1Lanson,  Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1901,  pp.  332-333. 

2Revue  d'histoire  litteraire,  1917,  pp.  357-393-  See  also  his  excellent  "Mon- 
taigne et  Francois  Bacon/'  Revue  de  la  renaissance,  1911,  pp.  121-158  and 
185-203,  particularly  his  prudent  conclusions;  and  his  article  "Montaigne  en 
Angleterre,"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  September  i,  1913. 

3 1603. 


SUCCESS  AND  INFLUENCE  261 

founded.  But,  for  the  most  part,  they  reveal  only  coinci- 
dences of  thought.  ...  I  have  scrupulously  examined  all 
the  similarities  indicated  .  .  .  and  I  find  few  worthy  of  con- 
sideration. The  retort  will  surely  be  made  that  their  number 
is  such  as  to  carry  weight.  Beware  lest  that  impression  lead 
us  astray!  One  hundred  zeros  added  together  make  only 
zero.  The  grain  of  probability  contained  in  each  of  these 
resemblances  is  so  infinitesimal  that  the  sum  of  all  the  grains 
does  not  make  even  the  beginning  of  a  demonstration." 
Cannot  this  remark  be  applied  to  all  studies  of  the  kind? 
Sometimes,  he  says  farther  on,  it  is  a  question  "of  ideas  that 
may  have  reached  Shakespeare  through  quite  another  chan- 
nel than  Montaigne,  in  particular  from  the  ancients"  or 
"from  the  common  domain  of  all  time";  or,  again,  it  may 
be  a  question  "of  opinions  that  seem  unnatural  to  us  today 
but  that  were  then  banal".  He  advises  us  "to  avoid  the 
strange  blindness  induced  in  a  scholar  by  the  desire  to  prove 
a  preconceived  theory".1 

Thus  a  writer's  role  as  interpreter  should  not  be  confused 
with  his  role  as  instigator.  In  a  multitude  of  cases  an  author 
translates  the  ideas,  feelings,  and  tendencies  of  an  entire 
public  or  environment.  Those  who  succeed  him  may  doubt- 
less feel  his  influence,  but  they  feel  at  the  same  time  the 
influence  of  many  others  who  are  themselves  the  interpreters 
and  heirs  of  this  same  place  and  this  same  public.  How  the 
role  of  Rousseau  in  French  Pre-Romanticism  has  been  en- 
hanced, or  that  of  Voltaire  in  the  revolt  against  the  Christian 
spirit !  Andre  Chenier  voices  the  reviving  taste  of  a  whole 
public  for  Greek  antiquity, — he  does  not  create  this  taste. 

1Loc.  cit.  pp.  383-385.  Compare  the  question  of  Descartes's  influence  on 
French  Classicism.  See  Krantz's  exaggeration  of  his  thesis  in  his  £5501  sur 
I'esthetique  de  Descartes  (Paris,  1882),  and  Lanson's  methodical  discussion, 
"L'Influence  de  la  philosophic  cartesienne  sur  la  litterature  franchise,"  Revue 
de  metaphysique  et  de  morale,  1896,  pp.  517-550. 


262  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

In  our  desire  to  emphasize  the  influence  of  an  author,  we 
must  not  call  him  a  starting-point  when  he  is  in  reality  an 
evidence  of  a  more  general  movement.  We  should  define 
his  role  rather  as  a  *  point  of  condensation'  and  a  ' centre 
of  radiation.' 

On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  our  special  concern  to  distin- 
guish what  is  due  to  the  work  itself  from  what  is  due  to 
the  environment,  we  should  make  the  knowledge  of  the  en- 
vironment a  part  of  our  preliminary  studies.  Currents  of 
opinion  or  of  thought,  literary  fashions  and  doctrines,  the 
eddies  and  cross-currents  of  vague  aspirations  or  clearly 
articulate  needs,  parallel  or  conflicting  influences,  general 
social  evolution  and  historical  events  of  wide  renown, — all 
these  should  be  definitely  and  constantly  present  in  our 
minds.  It  is  before  this  background  that  we  must  watch  our 
principal  characters  live  and  act.  Failing  to  take  this  pre- 
caution, we  run  the  risk  of  seeing  only  one  soldier  where 
there  is  an  army;  of  thinking  him  responsible  for  the  vic- 
tory, when  he  is  but  one  in  a  thousand ;  and  of  placing  on 
his  head  a  crown  that  history,  less  partial  and  better  in- 
formed, will  sooner  or  later  snatch  from  him. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  IN  CONNECTION  WITH 
THE  HISTORY  OF  IDEAS  AND  OF  MANNERS1 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  present  chapter  to  discuss  the 
best  methods  for  a  historical  research  of  the  transformation 

of  ideas  and  the  evolution  of  manners.    Not,  indeed,  that 

' 

the  subject  is  uninteresting,  or  that  among  the  publications 
of  the  last  fifteen  years  there  are  no  worthy  models,  but  that 
we  should  be  carried  quite  beyond  the  limits  of  this  book. 
It  seems,  however,  scarcely  possible  to  ignore  the  question 
when  we  reflect  how  repeatedly  the  history  of  literature — in 
other  words,  of  books — touches  the  history  of  manners  and 
of  ideas — of  life.  The  student  who  undertakes  any  such 
investigation  may  feel  not  only  that  he  is  overstepping  the 
boundaries  of  literature  proper :  perhaps  he  sees  as  well  the 
dangers  of  the  new  country  opening  before  him;  his  steps 
falter;  he  may  even  decide  to  retrace  them  without  ventur-i 
ing  into  the  perilous  regions  ahead.  This  prudence,  however, 
is  likely  to  cost  him  the  best  part  of  his  work :  the  book — • 
scanty,  curtailed,  incomplete — will  not  cover  the  subject, 
ft  may  give  an  impression  of  conscientious,  painstaking  re- 
search ;  it  will  not  give  the  more  important  and  more  praise- 

aSee  Lanson,  "L'Histoire  litteraire  et  la  sociologie,"  Revue  de  metaphy- 
sique  et  de  morale,  July,  1904;  D.  Mornet,  Le  Sentiment  de  la  nature  en 
France  de  J.-J.  Rousseau  a  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre  (1907),  especially  the 
Introduction  and  the  Conclusion.  I  want  to  acknowledge  here  all  I  owe,  in 
connection  with  the  present  chapter,  to  these  two  contributions,  and  perhaps 
still  more  to  the  personal  teaching  I  received  from  Lanson  and  Mornet  and 
to  the  precious  conversations  I  held  with  them. 

263 


264  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

worthy  impression  of  having  brought  to  life  in  its  entirety 
a  moment,  an  episode,  in  the  true  history  of  human  thought. 

In  what  spirit  should  we  approach  problems  of  this  type, 
since  approach  them  we  must?  What  attitude  should  we 
adopt  toward  them  ? 

To  Mme  de  Stael  is  generally  attributed  a  formula  that  has 
met  with  much  favor:  "Literature",  she  is  supposed  to  have 
said,  "is  the  expression  of  society."  This  seems  clear  and 
obvious;  and,  relying  more  or  less  implicitly  on  this  prin- 
ciple, many  attempts  have  been  made  to  study  literary  pro- 
ductions as  mirrors  of  the  society  in  which  they  were  created, 
or,  inversely,  to  study  society  as  the  source  of  literary  pro- 
ductions. How  has  it  happened  that  many  of  the  earlier 
studies  and  interpretations  rapidly  became  antiquated  and 
are  almost  valueless  today  ?  Was  it  not  because,  in  spite  of 
the  diligence  applied  to  the  work,  it  was  basically  unsound  ? 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  those  who  within  the  last  few  years  have 
shouldered  the  task  afresh  are  often  obliged  both  to  accumu- 
late documents  and  to  build  up  a  method.  Nothing,  indeed, 
is  more  necessary  than  to  evolve  processes  of  less  dubious 
historical  value,  for  the  questions  of  literary  history  are  rare 
that  do  not  in  some  particular  cease  to  be  solely  literary,  that 
do  not  run  more  or  less  deeply  into  the  history  of  ideas  and 
the  history  of  manners.  Two  important  works — Le  Roman 
social  en  Angleterre,  by  L.  Cazamian,  and  Le  Sentiment  de 
la  nature  en  France  de  /.-/.  Rousseau  a  Bernardin  de  Saint- 
Pierre,  by  Mornet — furnish  valuable  suggestions  of  method 
together  with  an  abundance  of  new  material  in  the  way  of 
scholarly  research.  The  latter  is  especially  interesting  to  us, 
for  it  was  through  the  very  nature  of  the  conditions  existing 
during  the  period  covered  by  the  book  that  its  author,  whose 
first  intention  was  to  study  Rousseau's  feeling  for  nature 
from  a  purely  literary  point  of  view,  was  led  to  inquire  into 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  AND  OF  MANNERS     265 

the  ideas  and  manners  that  formed  Rousseau's  environment. 
He  realized  that  nothing  in  Rousseau  could  be  explained 
without  the  knowledge  that  round  him  on  every  hand  had 
sprung  up  a  curiosity  about  nature, — a  taste  for  country 
life,  for  mountain  scenery,  for  landscape  gardening, — under 
conditions  that  placed  Rousseau  now  ahead  of  his  time,  now 
behind  it.  We  need  only  glance  through  the  book  to  see 
at  what  cost  of  minute  and  scientific  research,  with  what 
caution  and  wisdom,  Mornet  succeeds  in  determining  the 
delicate  reactions  between  literature  and  society,  between 
manners  and  books. 

If  we  consider  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth,  we  find  another  problem,  pre- 
senting itself  in  different  terms,  no  doubt,  but  confronting  us 
with  similar  difficulties.  That  problem,  which  I  myself  have 
attempted  to  treat  and  which  I  hope  to  be  allowed  to  use 
here  as  an  example,  is  the  place  held  by  the  question  of 
luxury  in  the  philosophical  literature  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury,— an  almost  indispensable  study  for  understanding  Bos- 
suet  no  less  than  La  Bruyere,  Voltaire  no  less  than  Rousseau. 
Writers  of  every  type  are  observed  to  touch  upon  luxury: 
preachers,  to  combat  it;  satirists,  to  jeer  at  its  excesses; 
moralists,  to  denounce  its  consequences;  philosophers  and 
economists,  to  study  its  processes  and  functions;  and  even 
novelists,  to  record  or  criticize  the  moral  or  social  reaction 
to  its  changing  manifestations.  Thus  the  eighteenth  century 
found  ready  at  hand  a  certain  number  of  important  ideas 
over  which  to  wage  literary  and  philosophic  war.  Now  these 
ideas  doubtless  did  not  spring  fully  armed  from  the  brain  of 
a  few  men  of  genius:  they  were  laboriously  forged  and 
ground  out  during  that  obscure  but  active  period  of  transi- 
tion when,  widely  dispersed  though  they  were,  new  theories 
were  struggling  to  the  light,  new  tendencies  taking  shape, 


266  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

opposing  forces  gaining  strength.  Notions  of  property, 
equality,  commerce,  luxury,  civilization,  and  progress,  of 
Nature  and  Revelation,  were  passing  through  an  indispen- 
sable preparatory  stage.  A  large  part  of  the  great  philo- 
sophical works  of  eighteenth-century  literature  will  remain 
unintelligible  or  obscure  until  we  study  the  transformation 
undergone  by  each  of  these  notions  in  passing  from  the 
moral  consciousness  of  the  seventeenth  century — Christian, 
monarchical,  classical,  and  speculative — to  the  moral  con- 
sciousness of  the  eighteenth, — 'libertin,'  liberal,  controver- 
sial, economic,  and  practical. 

The  results  of  this  research  I  shall  not  yet  set  forth;  I 
want  merely  to  explain  by  means  of  examples  (purposely 
few  in  number,  to  allow  of  detailed  discussion)  some  of  the 
difficulties  we  have  to  contend  with;  to  point  out  useful 
practices;  to  suggest  necessary  precautions  in  investigating 
or  in  interpreting  facts  and  documents ;  lastly,  to  determine 
the  nature  and  import  of  the  conclusions  to  which  such 
studies  may  lead. 

i.  To  convince  ourselves  that  in  treating  questions  that 
involve  the  history  of  ideas  or  of  manners  our  methods  should 
be  enlarged  and  adapted,  we  have  only  to  ask  what  would 
happen  if  we  kept  strictly  to  the  point  of  view  of  literary 
history.  The  arbitrary,  incomplete,  false  conclusions  thus 
reached  would  soon  prove  that  we  were  on  the  wrong  road. 

Doubtless,  by  limiting  ourselves  in  this  way,  we  could 
escape  much  labor.  By  relying  exclusively  on  texts  of  literary 
reputation  and  value,  without  looking  beyond  them,  it  is 
easy  to  group  quotations,  to  form  definitions,  to  trace  a  cur- 
rent, and,  easiest  of  all,  to  collect  elements  of  polished  antith- 
eses, whose  least  fault  is  their  complete  inaccuracy.  Let  me 
make  my  meaning  clear  by  taking  as  an  example  this  same 
question  of  luxury.  Let  us  confine  ourselves  to  literary 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  AND  OF  MANNERS     267 

works,  especially  to  those  that  literary  history  has  classed 
as  masterpieces.  What  do  we  see  ? 

On  the  one  hand,  in  the  neighborhood  of  1685  we  find 
a  general  condemnation  of  luxury :  viewed  by  the  moralists  as 
the  blight  of  nations ;  blamed  for  many  evils  by  La  Bruyere, 
in  his  Caracteres  (1688);  the  subject  of  a  merciless  Essai 
by  Nicole.  Fenelon,  in  his  Telemaque,  banishes  it  from 
Salente  and  lauds  the  ancient  ideal  of  frugality.  The  great 
preachers  pursue  its  every  manifestation:  Massillon  in  the 
Sermon  sur  I'aumone,  like  Bourdaloue  in  the  Sermon  sur  les 
divertissements  du  monde,  asserts  that  the  excesses  of  luxury 
have  brought  down  the  anger  of  God  upon  the  close  of  the 
great  reign. 

On  the  other  hand,  fifty  years  later,  about  1736,  we  see  a 
general  apology  for  luxury.  Preachers  still  declaim,  but  to 
empty  benches:  philosophers  and  economists  hold  sway. 
Le  Mondain  of  Voltaire  is  a  clamorous  declaration  of  war  on 
the  austere  moralists,  an  airy  and  rather  cynical  justification 
of  the  superfluous,  of  comfort  and  sensuality ;  it  is  the  gospel 
of  eighteenth-century  Epicureanism.  Condemnation  and 
vindication,  respectively,  are  the  watchwords  of  the  oppos- 
ing forces.  Speaking  strictly  from  the  point  of  view  of 
literary  history,  we  can  find  little  fault  with  this  division. 
In  fact,  under  one  head  or  the  other  we  might  easily  range 
the  leading  literary  works  without  perverting  their  sense  or 
coaxing  a  meaning  from  them  that  they  do  not  contain. 

Now,  in  reality,  there  is  no  such  sharp  division.  If  we 
are  content  to  accept  the  opposition,  we  are  far  from  tracing 
the  curve  of  thought  extending  through  these  fifty  years. 
Unless  we  accomplish  this,  we  cannot  give  to  literary  works 
their  full  significance. 

What  we  should  do  is  to  study  the  literary  movement  and 
the  movement  of  ideas  as  inseparably  linked  and  as  reacting 


268  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

upon  each  other;  when  examining  currents  and  tendencies 
— their  direction,  their  points  of  contact,  their  origin,  and 
their  transformation — we  should  notice  how  far  they  are 
reflected  in  literature. 

Here,  however,  the  real  trouble  begins:  the  correlation 
once  clearly  established,  how  shall  we  isolate,  how  shall  we 
select,  the  facts  with  which  to  work  ?  Yet  it  is  not  so  much 
a  question  of  choice  as  of  necessary  guarantees  and  precau- 
tions of  method. 

2.  To  merge  purely  literary  facts  with  facts  of  another 
nature,  to  study  literary  works  not  as  isolated  productions 
but  in  their  relation  to  the  social,  political,  or  economic 
world  to  which  they  belong,  is  to  become  entangled  in  a 
mass  of  complications  and  difficulties. 

a.  The  first  and  by  no  means  the  least  difficulty  consists 
in  discovering  in  the  texts  not  the  exceptional  nor  the  anec- 
dotal matter  but  the  usual,  the  normal.  It  is  almost  incred- 
ible to  what  extent  the  neglect  of  this  practice  has  warped 
and  still  warps  the  history  of  ideas.  H.  Baudrillart's  four- 
volume  Histoire  du  luxe  is  the  result  of  very  creditable  re- 
search: how  is  it  that  for  our  purposes  it  does  not  furnish 
half  a  dozen  interesting  facts?  Because  for  no  period  has 
Baudrillart  either  asked  or  found  what  was,  for  the  average 
individual,  the  average  consumption  of  luxuries  and  the 
average  idea  of  luxury, — information  essential  to  any  true 
interpretation  and  valuation  of  contemporary  literary  or 
philosophical  texts.  His  book  is,  in  the  main,  simply  an 
amusing  collection  of  anecdotes  about  the  peculiarities  of 
fashion,  the  exaggerated  table  refinement,  the  curious  ex- 
actions of  social  etiquette,  or  the  perplexing  mysteries  of 
feminine  attire.  The  same  objection  is  to  be  made  to  the 
works  of  the  Goncourt  brothers  on  the  society  and  the 
women  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Over  and  over  again  they 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  AND  OF  MANNERS     269 

quote  and  utilize  texts  that  we  also  have  to  consult;  but 
what  do  they  seek  in  them?  Not  the  average  soul  of  the 
period  but  the  extreme  cases,  the  scandalous  and  eccentric 
features.  The  king's  mistresses,  the  renowned  courtesans, 
and  the  filles  d' opera  do  not  constitute  the  eighteenth-century 
woman. 

We  find  an  instance  of  this  striking  contradiction  in  the 
case  of  Moliere's  successors  in  comedy,  Le  Sage,  Regnard, 
Dancourt.  They  are  supposed  to  have  portrayed  faithfully 
the  French  bourgeoisie  of  the  period;  the  picture  has  been 
often  reproduced — of  the  tradesman  with  his  newly  made 
wealth,  the  insolent  and  blustering  upstart.  It  is  a  time  when 
fortunes  are  made -in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  by  the  magic 
of  credit.  Speculation  is  rife;  social  distinctions  totter  and 
fall.  All  this  is  true,  no  doubt,  but  only  partly  and  locally 
true.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  exceptional  and  the  abnormal ;  other 
investigations,  more  extensive  and  more  painstaking,  give  us 
insight  into  quite  a  different  reality.  Glance  over  those  ac- 
count books  ('livres  de  raison'),  those  family  registers  in 
which,  day  after  day,  the  bourgeois  of  the  provinces  or  even 
of  Paris  set  down  their  domestic  accounts  and  the  faithful 
record  of  their  obscure  existences.  More  than  two  hun- 
dred such  books  have  been  published,  typifying  the  life  of 
several  localities,  of  many  degrees  of  fortune,  of  various  pro- 
fessions. Add  to  these  the  private  correspondence,  printed 
or  in  manuscript,1  and  we  shall  see  a  bourgeois  society 
emerge  very  different  from  the  first, — one  composed  not  of 
a  few  irrational  and  unprincipled  individuals  but  of  a  mass 
of  unknown,  good,  industrious  people.  This  is  the  bour- 
geoisie that  works,  thinks,  and  acts,  that  takes  advantage  of 

1  Besides  the  large  number  of  references  given  in  the  Catalogue  des  manu- 
scrits  des  bibliotheques  des  departements  (Paris,  1849-1906),  many  private 
archives  are  accessible. 


270  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

the  progress  of  commerce  and  industry  to  build  up,  little  by 
little,  a  comfortable  and  substantial  competency.  It  is  just 
this  normal,  average  bourgeoisie  whose  existence  we  should 
recognize  and  whose  mentality  we  should  analyze,  if  we 
would  understand  the  diffusion,  the  success,  and  the  influ- 
ence, at  this  time,  of  works  in  which  a  spirit  of  reform  and  a 
solicitude  for  national  issues  are  manifest.  To  this  class  be- 
longed the  readers  for  whom  La  Bruyere,  Fenelon,  Vauban, 
and  Boisguillebert  wrote:  these  readers  we  need  to  know. 

As  is  readily  seen,  if  a  literary  work  is  considered  by  itself, 
or  if  it  is  considered  a  priori  as  a  faithful  and  adequate  ex- 
ponent of  the  social  stratum  to  which  it  corresponds,  errors 
are  bound  to  result.  At  this  stage  in  our  work,  therefore,  it 
behooves  us  to  take  additional  precautions.1 

b.  The  first  precaution  relates  to  literary  works  consid- 
ered by  themselves.  As  I  have  said  elsewhere,  we  should  not 
let  ourselves  be  hypnotized  by  the  masterpieces ;  for  master- 
pieces are  but  rarely  exact  in  their  representation  of  con- 
temporary public  opinion  and  of  the  progress  of  ideas.  "It 
is  a  mistake",  said  Bersot,  "to  believe  .  .  .  that  the  book 
that  makes  the  most  stir  is  the  most  characteristic  of  its 
epoch."  Bossuet  is  ahead  of  his  time:  the  Pere  Gerdil  or 
the  Pere  Provinquieres,  of  faint  renown,  reflect  it  more 
accurately. 

Secondly,  it  is  specially  important  here  to  give  to  chronol- 
ogy the  scrupulous  attention  that  I  have  already  insisted  on. 
Famous  men  and  famous  works  are  often  walled  in  by  cer- 
tain traditions,  certain  classifications,  which  it  is  hard  to 
overthrow.  How  many  people, — even  cultivated  people, — 
in  speaking  of  eighteenth-century  painters,  name  Watteau  in 
the  same  breath  with  Fragonard,  without  realizing  that 

1This  chapter  finds  its  natural  complement  in  Chapter  X,  "Questions  of 
Success  and  of  Influence." 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  AND  OF  MANNERS      271 

Fragonard  was  born  eleven  years  after  the  death  of  Watteau 
and  that  he  was  a  contemporary  of  Napoleon  I,  Watteau  of 
Louis  XIV  ?  Or  let  us  turn  to  some  of  the  authors  who  are 
involved  in  our  study  of  ideas  on  luxury  :  Bossuet,  Fenelon, 
La  Bruyere,  Fontenelle,  Bayle.  Each  has  his  traditional 
niche  in  the  history  of  the  literature  of  his  epoch  ;  manuals 
and  other  scholarly  works,  I  am  well  aware,  are  responsible 
for  a  large  part  of  this.  In  these  works  Bossuet,  Fenelon,  and 
La  Bruyere  belong  without  question  to  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury; there  they  are,  ranged  alongside  the  '  grands  clas- 
siques,'  as  glorious  representatives  of  French  literature 
under  Louis  XIV.  Fontenelle  and  Bayle,  on  the  contrary, 
are  always  given  a  place  apart.  Once  for  all  they  have  been 
baptized  'precursors'  of  the  eighteenth  century,  which  entitles 
them  to  a  special  chapter.  They  are  thought  to  be  closer  to 
Montesquieu  or  Voltaire  than  to  Fenelon  or  Bossuet.  The 
fact  is,  however,  that  the  Dialogues  des  morts  of  Fontenelle 
(1683)  is  anterior  to  Les  Caracteres  and  to  Telemaque  and 
that  scarcely  eighteen  months  elapsed  between  the  Pensees 
diver  ses  sur  la  comete  of  Bayle  (1682)  and  the  Discours  sur 
I'histoire  universelle  of  Bossuet  (1681). 

Lastly,  for  certain  categories  of  writers  we  must  disregard 
the  individual  and  consider  the  group,  in  order  to  reach  the 
average  opinion.  This  method  has  to  be  applied,  for  instance, 
to  preachers  and  jurists.  Here  personal  doctrines  matter 
little,  unless  in  dealing  with  the  great  minds  :  we  must,  so  to 
speak,  take  *  cross  sections'  at  various  dates  and,  by  accumu- 
lating the  evidence  and  verifying  the  variations,  gain  a 
knowledge  of  the  general  direction  and  intensity  of  the 
movement.1  In  regard  to  the  preachers,  a  close  examination 


process  has  been  clearly  explained  by  Mornet  in  the  Introduction  to 
the  book  already  cited,  and  analyzed  by  Lanson  in  a  review  of  the  same  book, 
in  Revue  d'histoire  Htttraire,  1908,  pp.  168-170, 


272  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

of  some  three  hundred  sermons,  from  1670  to  1730,  shows 
that  the  question  of  luxury,  originally  discussed  from  the 
pulpit  as  a  moral  issue,  becomes  finally  a  social  question: 
luxury,  once  the  corrupter  that  interfered  with  the  Christian 
duty  of  almsgiving,  is  denounced  rather  for  disturbing  the 
social  hierarchy,  upsetting  existing  conditions,  establishing 
a  sort  of  equality  between  social  elements  that  it  was  in 
God's  scheme  of  things  to  keep  distinct.  This  point  does 
not  stand  out,  or  stands  out  only  dimly,  if,  instead  of  com- 
paring groups  of  preachers,  we  limit  ourselves  to  the  best 
and  most  striking  sermons  of  the  few  gifted  and  famous  men. 

The  foregoing  advice  aims  solely  at  associating  literature 
and  life.  It  should  be  supplemented  by  considering  the  fol- 
lowing questions: 

(r)  In  what  measure  does  the  work  owe  its  creation  and 
original  form  to  the  environment  ?  First,  let  us  remark  that 
even  if  the  book  presents  the  author's  thought  to  the  public, 
it  often  returns — to  quote  La  Bruyere's  words — what  the 
public  has  lent.  The  form  that  the  writer  gives  to  his  work, 
the  spirit  that  animates  it,  the  way  he  develops  his  ideas, 
depend  primarily  on  his  own  originality  and  creative  force ; 
but  is  it  not  true  also  that  they  depend  to  a  certain  extent 
on  the  readers  for  whom  the  work  is  destined  ?  This  relation 
should  never  be  lost  sight  of.  If,  as  Lanson  says,  "the  mind 
of  the  author  contains  in  advance  the  mind  of  his  readers",1 
we  must  ask  how  far  the  author,  in  choosing  his  means  of 
expression,  in  arranging  his  thoughts,  in  insisting  on  certain 
ideas,  has  obeyed — perhaps  unconsciously — the  imperious 
demand  that  reached  him  from  his  future  public.  Every 
study  of  the  trend  of  ideas  in  the  first  third  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  for  example,  draws  extensively  on  the  Lettres  per- 
sanes  of  Montesquieu.  Now  we  can  neither  weigh  the  real 

1  Revue  de  mttaphysique  et  de  morale,  p.  626, 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  AND  OF  MANNERS      273 

value  of  his  testimony  nor  measure  the  book's  novelty  or 
influence  without  first  ascertaining  to  what  extent  it  was 
'ordered'  by  the  public.  On  a  close  inspection  we  see  that 
neither  the  form  (an  epistolary  novel),  nor  the  Eastern  ele- 
ment, nor  the  conception  of  a  social  or  political  satire,  nor 
even  the  Utopian  pages  on  the  Troglodytes,  are  in  any  exact 
sense  new.  We  see  that  they  fit  into  an  already  existing 
series ;  that  in  this  respect  Montesquieu  has  created  nothing, 
— he  has  satisfied  a  demand.  He  is  therefore  neither  an 
innovator  nor  a  precursor:  he  is,  rather,  the  enlightened, 
intelligent,  well-informed  spokesman  of  a  social  group  that 
has  prepared  in  advance  a  form  for  his  thought  and  polemic. 

Does  this  imply  that  literary  works  are  the  faithful  images 
of  the  average  opinions  and  ideas  of  the  society  that  gives 
them  birth  ?  Should  we  make  this  relation  a  postulate  of  our 
method  of  research  ?  By  no  means. 

Without  speaking  here  of  works  that  apparently  have  no 
direct  relation  to  their  environment, — products  of  isolated 
writers,  resulting  from  prolonged  meditations  in  soundproof 
"towers  of  ivory", — we  must  remember  the  books  that  ex- 
press not  what  actually  already  exists  in  the  social  environ- 
ment but  what  is  yet  to  be  realized — the  aspirations  and 
hopes  of  that  environment.  Again  it  is  Lanson  who  finds  a 
neat  phrase:  "In  such  cases",  he  says,  "literature  is  not  the 
image  of  society,  but  its  complement."1  Take  as  an  instance 
the  first  Discours  of  Rousseau,  "Sur  les  sciences  et  les  arts" : 
is  it  purely  declamatory,  expressing  only  Rousseau's  personal 
sentiments  and  points  of  view,  connected  in  no  way  with  the 
social  sphere  in  which  it  appeared?  Nothing  of  the  kind. 
Doubtless  the  work  represents  neither  the  society  nor  the 
customs  of  the  time :  it  is  in  Voltaire  and  in  the  Encyclopedia 
that  the  thirst  for  civilization,  for  progress  and  luxury, 

1Loc.  cit.  p.  635. 


274  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

characteristic  of  this  society,  finds  its  true  expression.  The 
"Mondain"  of  Voltaire  is  a  type  that  could  be  seen  any- 
where in  the  fashionable  life  of  Paris  and  the  provinces. 
Yet  certain  people  felt  a  yearning  that  neither  Voltaire  nor 
the  Encyclopedic  could  satisfy ;  they  were  filled  with  anxiety 
and  scruples  of  conscience,  with  discontent  and  revolt;  nei- 
ther the  social  life  nor  the  literature  of  the  day  could  reas- 
sure or  calm  them.  These  mingled  aspirations  (contrary,  we 
should  note,  to  the  general  trend  of  the  period),  these  regrets 
or  dreams,  which  the  preachers  of  fifty  years  before  might 
have  interpreted,  find  expression  in  the  bitter,  burning  pages 
of  the  Discours  of  Rousseau.  Here  again,  the  environment 
is  responsible  for  the  literary  work,  but  only  in  a  particular, 
restricted,  and  almost  negative  sense. 

(2)  In  what  measure  does  the  environment  influence  the 
subsequent  life  of  the  work?  As  we  penetrate  far  into  the 
study  of  the  relations  between  literature  and  society  we 
should  repeatedly  ask  this  question.  It  is  of  no  avail  to 
collate  the  various  readings,  to  observe  the  development  of 
a  writer's  ideas,  and  to  state  the  results  with  scientific  preci- 
sion. We  should  seek  the  reason  for  this  evolution, — the 
causes,  often  exterior,  of  this  transformation.  Many  times 
it  is  not  so  much  the  writer  himself  who  changes  as  the 
political,  economic,  and  social  conditions  round  him.  Litera- 
ture is  only  the  echo  of  these  conditions.  The  La  Bruyere 
of  1695  is  no  longer  the  La  Bruyere  of  1688:  a  richer  ma- 
turity, a  keener  observation,  a  sort  of  ambition  that  success 
has  fostered  from  edition  to  edition,  no  doubt  explain  many 
of  the  alterations  and  additions  in  Les  Caracteres ;  but  does 
not  the  difference  between  society  and  social  conditions  in 
1688  and  in  1695  count  for  much?  A  short  passage  from 
the  Maximes  of  La  Rochefoucauld  illustrates  this  point  with 
striking  exactness.  In  1664,  in  the  first  edition,  we  find: 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  AND  OF  MANNERS      275 

"La  politesse  des  Etats  est  le  commencement  de  leur  deca- 
dence, parce  qu'elle  applique  tous  les  particuliers  a  leur 
interet  propre  et  les  detourne  du  bien  public."  In  1665  the 
phrase  becomes:  "Le  luxe  et  la  trop  grande  politesse  dans 
les  Etats  sont  le  presage  assure  de  leur  decadence,  parce  que 
tous  les  particuliers  s'attachant  a  leurs  interets  propres,  ils  se 
detournent  du  bien  public."  After  1666  it  is  suppressed. 
What  does  this  signify  ?  Can  we  not  trace  here  the  reactions 
of  La  Rochefoucauld's  observant  and  thoughtful  nature  to 
the  pressure  of  events  and  experience  ?  The  first  form  of  the 
maxim  represents  traditional  and  current  opinion :  pomp  and 
excessive  refinement  corrupt  nations,  debilitate  energy,  and 
encourage  egoism.  A  few  months  later,  Colbertism  stimu- 
lates a  sudden  and  unexpected  rise  of  industry.  A  large  num- 
ber of  the  most  important  manufactories  are  founded  in  1664 
and  1665.  The  effect  is  quickly  felt  in  private  consumption 
and  public  expenditure,  especially  in  Paris  and  in  the  aristo- 
cratic circles  that  La  Rochefoucauld  frequents.  Thus  his 
anxiety  takes  definite  form;  he  expresses  it  more  forcibly 
and  completely:  "Le  luxe  et  la  trop  grande  politesse  .  .  .  le 
presage  assure  de  la  decadence."  Then  Colbertism  carries 
the  day;  its  triumph  seems  definite  and  indisputable;  the 
king  derives  new  glory  from  it;  the  nation,  power  and  re- 
spect; and  the  moralist  strikes  out  the  reflection  that  con- 
tains a  criticism  of  Colbert  and  his  success. 

I  might  make  the  same  experiment  on  less  celebrated 
works,  such  as  the  Essais  de  morale,  of  Nicole,  and  the  Consi- 
derations sur  les  moeurs,  of  Duclos.  Or  let  me,  rather,  point 
out  the  overwhelming  effect  of  the  same  social  and  economic 
changes  upon  the  great  Arnauld.  I  choose  two  letters  by 
him,  one  written  in  1668,  the  other  in  1685,  in  which  he 
replies  to  overscrupulous  priests  who  ask  how  much  severity 
they  should  apply  to  feminine  adornment,  laces,  and  luxuri- 


276  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

ous  brocades.  In  1668  he  speaks  in  pure  Jansenist  vein:  no 
tolerance  of  superfluous  and  diabolical  ornaments, — those 
instruments  of  corruption  and  agents  of  immodesty.  In  1685 
the  tone  has  changed  together  with  the  doctrine.  Take 
care !  advises  Arnauld ;  be  cautious !  Be  not,  of  course,  in- 
dulgent toward  Christians  who  forget  the  duty  of  almsgiv- 
ing,— especially  toward  penitents  inclined  to  a  too  liberal 
"nudite  de  gorge".  But  also,  before  condemning  harshly, 
— Arnauld  continues, — give  heed  to  these  points :  first,  that, 
as  the  price  of  luxuries  has  greatly  decreased  in  the  last  ten 
years,  more  brocades  and  laces  today  do  not  necessarily  mean 
more  extravagance ;  next,  that  the  manufacture  of  such  com- 
modities furnishes  a  living  for  a  multitude  of  laboring  men 
and  women  whom  your  condemnation  would  deprive  of  wages 
and  bread.  A  curious  evolution,  indeed,  to  be  explained  only 
by  the  vast  economic  revolution  that  separates  the  two  texts.1 

(3)  These  instances  are  enough  to  show  how  we  obtain 
through  literary  texts  a  'snapshot'  of  the  morals  and  opin- 
ions of  a  period  profoundly  stirred  by  the  pressure  of  new 
economic  and  social  conditions.  If  such  is  the  general  effect 
of  the  public  on  the  book,  we  should  also  ask  ourselves  what 
is  the  effect  of  the  book  on  the  public.  In  the  chapter 
entitled  "Questions  of  Success  and  of  Influence"  I  have  an- 
alyzed more  especially  literary  influences ;  now  it  is  time  to 
consider  influence  on  life,  manners,  and  moral  ideas. 

We  already  know  with  what  extreme  prudence  it  is  neces- 
sary to  speak  of  the  influence  of  a  book.  The  starting-point 
for  such  a  study,  as  we  have  seen,  is  not  the  book  itself  but 
the  opinion  formed  of  it  by  the  reading-public.  To  the  ex- 
amples given,  it  is  possible  to  add  one  or  two  that  are  of 
special  importance  for  the  history  of  moral  doctrines. 

1For  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  these  points  see  my  Apologie  du  luxe 
au  XVIIIe  sitcle.  Paris,  1909. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  AND  OF  MANNERS     277 

Observe,  for  instance,  how  the '  libertins '  of  the  seventeenth 
century  utilized  and  transformed  the  Epicureanism  of  Gas- 
sendi.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  we  find  practically  nothing  of 
Gassendi's  Syntagma  philosophiae  Epicuri  in  either  Saint- 
Evremond,  Ninon  de  Lenclos,  or  Mme  Deshoulieres.  Yet 
they  quote  Gassendi,  rest  on  his  authority,  are  saturated  with 
him.  In  1678  his  favorite  disciple,  the  "joli  philosophe" 
Bernier,  published  two  widely  circulated  editions  of  an 
Abrege  de  la  philosophic  de  Gassendi,  which,  under  the  shel- 
ter of  Gassendi's  name,  contains  a  system  considerably  dif- 
ferent from  his.  Therefore,  when  we  speak  of  the  influence 
of  'Gassendism,'  we  should  start  not  from  Gassendi  himself 
but  from  the  sum  total  of  the  ideas  that  his  disciples  or  in- 
direct heirs  have  established  in  his  name. 

Mandeville's  Fable  of  the  Bees,  a  work  of  much  impor- 
tance for  the  history  of  ideas  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
has  been  similarly  distorted.  The  book,  published  in  Eng- 
land in  1706,  was  not  translated  into  French  until  1740. 
Before  being  translated,  however,  it  was  used  and  even 
occasionally  imitated,  though  less  well  known  in  its  original 
text  than  through  the  abstracts  and  reviews  given  in  the 
periodicals.  Now  all  of  these — Journal  des  savants,  Mercure 
de  France,  Memoiresde  Trevoux,  Bibliotheque  britannique — 
were  of  one  mind  in  stressing  Mandeville's  ideas  on  luxury 
and  its  function  in  social  life.  As  a  result,  a  chapter  that  is 
really  supplementary  to  the  original  work,  and  that  gives  of 
the  author's  general  ideas  only  a  fragmentary  and  incomplete 
impression,  appeared  to  the  French  public  the  most  impor- 
tant and  original  part.  If,  then,  we  say  that  Mandeville  has 
influenced  the  evolution  of  moral  ideas  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury in  France,  we  must  qualify  our  statement  by  admitting 
that  it  is  not  precisely  Mandeville's  own  thought  that  has 
acted,  but  what  the  public  has  rightly  or  wrongly  made  of  it. 


278  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Now  if  we  want  to  push  farther,  we  must  ask  ourselves 
whether  the  action  of  a  literary  work  on  its  readers  can 
really  produce  changes  in  the  social  or  moral  life  of  an 
epoch  or  an  environment.  The  question  is  a  very  different 
one  from  that  of  a  purely  literary  influence :  here  an  actual, 
practical  influence  is  to  be  determined;  in  other  words,  the 
changes,  disturbances,  or  progress  that  it  provokes  in  the 
lives  of  men  or  of  institutions. 

Influences  of  this  type  can,  I  think,  be  classified  under 
three  headings :  a  literary  work  may  be  an  agent  of  libera- 
tion, an  agent  of  preparation,  or  an  agent  of  organization. 

It  may  be  an  agent  of  liberation  in  the  sense  that  it  creates 
a  general  state  of  mind  or  of  conscience  so  fundamentally 
at  variance  with  certain  political,  economic,  social,  and  moral 
conditions  that  these  must  either  be  modified  or  abolished. 
During  the  last  years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  and  during 
the  Regency  occurs  a  joyous  expansion  of  epicurism.  When 
we  see  noble  and  bourgeois  shaking  off  the  gloomy  yoke  of 
moral  austerity  and  rigidity;  when  we  see  people  devoting 
themselves  in  all  tranquillity  of  conscience  to  the  enjoyment 
of  worldly  goods  and  to  each  day's  increased  comfort,  without 
excess,  debauchery,  or  even  coarseness,  but  with  firm  deter- 
mination to  miss  none  of  the  ephemeral  pleasures  of  a  too 
short  existence, — when  we  see  this  transformation  in  the 
manner  of  living,  we  should  seek  the  cause  not  only  in  a 
material  change  of  conditions  but  also  in  the  deep  influence 
of  the  freethinkers, — of  Saint-Evremond,  Gassendi,  or  Ber- 
nier,  who  have  made  all  other  modes  and  conceptions  of  life 
intolerable  to  their  readers. 

Again,  a  singularly  interesting  confirmation  of  such  influ- 
ence might  be  found  on  the  eve  of  the  French  Revolution. 
Writers  and  philosophers  who  during  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury publicly  aired  their  views  helped  to  make  the  people 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  AND  OF  MANNERS      279 

intolerant  of  certain  abuses,  certain  absurdities,  of  the  Old 
Regime.  Readers  fed  on  Montesquieu,  Voltaire,  and  Rous- 
seau could  not  live  happily  within  the  narrow  limits  of  a 
political  organization  imposed  by  monarchical  absolutism,  by 
a  judiciary  system  founded  on  the  selling  of  positions  and  the 
bribing  of  judges,  and  by  a  disastrous  inequality  of  condi- 
tions and  classes.  The  structure  was  bound  to  crumble,  not 
only  because  it  was  beginning  to  crack  but  because  this 
enlightened  public  who  must  live  under  it  would  accept  it  no 
longer.  When  the  representatives  of  the  people  transferred 
the  bodies  of  Voltaire  and  of  Rousseau  to  the  Pantheon,  they 
were  not  merely  obeying  a  fanatical  impulse  or  a  desire 
to  spite  the  late  regime:  their  action  was  symbolic  and 
significant. 

Is  there  not  a  certain  similarity  in  all  this  to  the  role 
played  by  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  in  connection  with  the  struggle 
against  slavery? 

A  literary  work  may  be  also  an  agent  of  preparation.  This 
is  too  obvious  to  dwell  upon.  Social,  legislative,  and  political 
changes  imply  a  long  and  thorough  preparation  in  which 
literary  works  take  an  active  part.  The  theatre  and  the 
novel  ' prepared'  the  French  laws  on  divorce,  on  the  legal 
status  of  women,  on  education.  When  between  1900  and 
1914,  after  a  decided  falling  away  of  patriotism  in  France,  a 
splendid  revival  took  place,  the  writers  who  gave  expression 
to  the  feeling  were  not  only  the  echoes  of  their  public: 
they  were  its  guides  and  instructors,  oftentimes  checked  by 
irony  and  opposition.  They  were  preparing;  and  the  en- 
thusiasm of  1914  has  proved  that  the  voices  of  authors  heard 
through  their  books  are  not  powerless  to  stir  a  nation's  soul 
to  its  depths. 

Lastly,  a  literary  work  may  be  an  agent  of  organization. 
It  is  a  means  of  communication  between  minds;  it  helps  to 


28o  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

form  opinion,  either  in  the  public  at  large  or  in  a  group. 
Like  a  tiny  quantity  of  some  chemical  substance  thrown  into 
a  solution  already  saturated  with  the  same  substance,  it 
causes  a  sudden  crystallization  that  alters  completely  the 
existing  conditions.  Here  two  cases  may  arise : 

(a)  A  book  may  brusquely  penetrate  an  environment  where 
many  minds  are  unconsciously  preoccupied  with  identical 
needs.  To  this  tie,  real  but  not  sensed,  it  gives  concrete  form. 
It  unites  the  members  of  a  group  and  helps  them  to  know 
and  to  understand  one  another.    In   1734  the  economist 
J.  B.  Melon's  Essai  politique  sur  le  commerce,  which  takes  up 
once  more  the  question  of  luxury,  fell  in  the  midst  of  a  pub- 
lic whose  ideas  on  the  subject,  in  the  preceding  twenty  years, 
had  undergone  a  profound  change.    Gradually  yet  progres- 
sively the  question  had  shifted  from  a  moral  to  an  economic 
basis.    Of  this  everyone  was  vaguely  conscious,  but  no  one 
had  said  it  in  so  many  words.    Melon  did  say  it,  distinctly,  in 
a  few  vivid,  striking  pages  which  interpret  admirably  the  un- 
expressed or  ill-expressed  opinions,  moral,  economic,  and 
social,  of  the  upper  classes  of  the  bourgeoisie.    This,  then,  is 
one  instance  of  a  book's  giving  to  the  opinion  of  a  social  group 
the  homogeneity  that  it  had  but  imperfectly  achieved  and  the 
formula  that  it  totally  lacked.  It  was  an  agent  of  unification. 

(b)  A  book  may  also  serve  to  draw  together  a  few  isolated 
individuals  who,  lost  in  the  throng,  are  opposed  to  the  gen- 
erally accepted  views  both  in  their  habit  of  mind  and  in 
their  personal  beliefs.   It  states  this  opposition  precisely  and 
is  a  rallying-point  for  these  scattered  skirmishers.    A  small, 
independent  faction  is  formed,  a  veritable  party  with  a  plat- 
form; the  party,  however,  does  not  make  the  platform, — 
the  platform  makes  the  party.   Such  a  platform  is  the  first 
Discours  of  Rousseau, — a  paradoxical  and  blatant  work, 
flung  in  the  face  of  a  public  that  held  the  sanctioning  of 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  AND  OF  MANNERS     281 

luxury  an  almost  incontestable  truth.  Rousseau,  among  a 
mass  of  adversaries,  discovered  a  handful  of  followers  op- 
posed to  the  economic  rehabilitation  of  luxury.  From  1750 
they  are  a  force  to  reckon  with.  This  group,  in  a  measure 
restoring  the  question  to  the  moral  footing  that  had  been 
disregarded  for  nearly  half  a  century,  appeared  as  a  sort  of 
new  cell  in  the  total  social  organism  at  that  date.  The  dis- 
course acted  as  an  agent  of  dissociation. 

Such  are  the  various  contacts  that  a  work  may  have  with 
the  society  that  gives  it  birth,  and  such  are  their  principal 
actions  and  reactions.  In  attempting  to  discover  and  to  define 
these,  we  must  not  forget  to  ask  another  question : 

How  wide  has  been  the  diffusion  of  the  work?  We  have 
seen  already1  that  by  means  of  bibliography,  the  history  of 
printing,  a  study  of  the  press,  memoirs,  and  correspondences, 
as  well  as  by  considering  the  use  to  which  the  work  is  put  as 
the  source  of  subsequent  authors,  we  may  answer  this  ques- 
tion with  a  satisfactory  degree  of  certainty. 

Without  these  precautions  we  shall  surely  form  false 
estimates  of  the  extent  of  the  action  of  a  book  on  society. 
Originality  or  novelty  is  not  a  guarantee  of  popularity  or 
influence,  nor  is  it  often  a  reason  for  either.  Thus  we  should 
at  the  outset  make  sure  that  the  book  has  ever  had  popu- 
larity or  influence.  If  we  find  no  signs  of  these,  either  at  the 
time  of  publication  or  afterwards,  we  must  give  up  trying  to 
fit  the  book  into  a  preconceived  role.  For  instance,  in  the 
very  obscure  Cours  abrege  de  philosophic,  published  in  Swit- 
zerland in  1697  by  the  equally  obscure  French  refugee  Le 
Sage  de  la  Colombiere,  is  set  forth  practically  the  entire 
mercantilistic  theory  of  commerce  and  luxury  that  was  later 
to  meet  with  great  success  in  the  writings  of  Melon  and  Vol- 
taire. This  fact  is  strange;  it  is  amusing — but  that  is  all 

1See  chapter  entitled  "Questions  of  Success  and  of  Influence,"  p.  225. 


282  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

there  is  to  it.  Nowhere  in  France,  in  the  works  of  famous 
or  of  insignificant  writers,  in  reviews  or  in  newspapers,  in 
libraries,  or  in  volumes  of  collected  essays,  is  the  slightest 
trace  to  be  found  of  any  knowledge  of  Le  Sage  de  la  Colom- 
biere.  His  thought  was  original  and  striking,  without  doubt. 
That  it  has  lain  dormant,  taking  no  part  in  the  history  of 
ideas,  there  is  even  less  doubt.  The  yeast  may  lie  close  to 
the  dough  indefinitely  and  remain  inactive:  they  must  be 
mixed  before  the  bread  will  rise. 

After  these  varied  investigations  have  put  us  in  possession 
of  the  facts,  we  must  turn  them  to  account — group  them, 
organize  them,  and  interpret  them. 

Le  Sentiment  de  la  nature  en  France  de  /.-/.  Rousseau 
a  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre,  by  Mornet,  is  full  of  interesting 
suggestions  as  to  what  method  to  pursue  at  this  point.1 

First,  it  is  well,  as  Mornet  expresses  it,  to  form  "homo- 
geneous groups"  of  facts  having  the  same  character,  the 
same  origin,  and  a  similar  bearing,  in  order  to  eliminate  as 
far  as  possible  individual  differences.  Too  often  "entertain- 
ing documents  have  been  collected  to  the  neglect  of  chro- 
nology and  truth.  Here  we  have  gathered  them  in  together 
with  everything  that  surrounds  them — obscure  examples, 
works  forgotten  almost  as  soon  as  written,  humble  records 
of  mediocre  people,  that  give  the  surest  proof  of  the  depth 
an  influence  may  attain."  Thus  Mornet  groups  in  series 
every  fact  he  can  gather  relating  to  his  special  subject: 
evidences  of  the  growing  taste  for  travel,  the  new  interest  in 
ocean  or  mountains,  the  transformation  in  architecture  and 
landscape  gardening,  or  the  effect  of  these  modifications  on 
literary  inspiration  and  form.  Similarly,  whoever  wants  to 
study  a  problem  such  as  that  of  ideas  on  the  nature  of  money, 
commerce,  or  luxury  which  prevailed  between  1660  and  1750 

1See  pages  9  ff. 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  AND  OF  MANNERS     283 

must  take  into  account  not  only  the  doctrines  and  opinions 
expressed  in  the  masterpieces  of  Bossuet,  Montesquieu,  or 
Rousseau  but  also  the  average  doctrine  and  opinion  of  preach- 
ers and  moralists,  of  magistrates  and  of  the  bourgeoisie.  By 
dropping  all  writings — individual  caprice,  pure  paradox,  or 
trivial  anecdote — into  one  melting-pot,  we  may  hope  to  ex- 
tract the  general  cast  of  mind  or  moral  consciousness  of 
a  given  period. 

This  first  suggestion  is  supplemented  by  another:  We 
should  try  to  determine  the  flow  of  converging  facts;  only 
by  this  means  can  we  measure  the  information  gained 
through  particular  investigations.  "The  transformations  in 
manners",  says  Mornet,  "are  not  simple  in  their  courses. 
Opinion  seems  to  progress  as  a  rising  tide,  whose  waves 
alternately  advance  and  recede.  From  the  innumerable  mass 
of  volumes  spread  out  before  the  historian  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  it  is  easy  for  him  to  choose  quotations  that  prove 
anything  he  pleases.  The  experiment  has  been  made.  The 
true  meaning  of  a  movement  does  not  become  clear  until,  in- 
stead of  contrasting  a  few  facts  with  nothing,  we  contrast 
a  group  that  expands  with  one  that  contracts."1  It  will  be 
well  to  notice,  in  his  book  as  a  whole  and  especially  in  the 
concluding  chapter,  how  skillfully  he  applies  this  method. 

Once  more  let  me  repeat  that  its  application  to  the  prob- 
lem of  ideas  on  luxury  simplifies  a  mass  of  facts  that  are 
often  obscure  and  always  complex.  I  dwell  on  this  point 
as  an  illustration  of  the  service  rendered  to  scholars  and 
students  by  those  who  know  how  to  organize  and  formulate 
useful  methods.  When,  in  the  course  of  my  work,  Mornet's 
book  was  published,  I  felt  as  if  I  were  emerging  from  a 
forest  full  of  misleading  tangled  trails  into  a  garden  squared 
off  by  orderly  paths  with  signposts  at  their  intersections. 

aLoc.  tit.  p.  9. 


284  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

Therefore,  with  Hornet's  directions  to  guide  us,  let  us 
review  the  question  of  luxury  as  a  whole  and  see  what  re- 
sults we  reach.  Toward  1670  what  do  we  find?  Facts  that 
prove  a  general  opposition  to  luxury  preponderate :  preach- 
ers, moralists,  philosophers,  historians,  and  magistrates  are 
almost  unanimous;  sumptuary  laws  multiply;  the  govern- 
ment is  in  sympathy  with  prevailing  sentiment.  Here  we 
have  the  dominant  group.  Not  the  only  group,  however, 
for  round  it  are  forming  opposing  tendencies.  First,  eco- 
nomic facts,  whose  moral  and  social  bearings  are  only  partly 
disclosed,  though  already  in  embryo,  and  perceptible  either 
in  a  few  daring  thinkers  or  in  sporadic  occurrences  of 
daily  life — a  restricted  group,  not  yet  to  be  compared  to 
the  preceding  one.  Secondly,  as  an  undercurrent,  still  ob- 
scure and  intangible,  the  'libertin'  Epicureanism  of  Saint- 
Evremond,  of  Ninon  de  Lenclos,  of  Bernier,  and  of  a  few 
others,  which  spreads  farther  and  farther,  takes  on  a  thou- 
sand shapes,  penetrates  into  theoretical  morality,  and  echoes 
in  everyday  life.  This  last  influence  has  at  that  date  no 
direct  connection  with  the  question  of  luxury,  but  prepares 
a  more  indulgent  attitude  toward  it :  the  epicureans  who  seek 
to  extract  from  life  all  the  pleasures  and  comforts  it  affords 
are  quite  ready  to  join  hands  with  the  defenders  of  luxury 
as  a  source  of  pleasure  and  purveyor  of  material  comfort. 

Thirty  years  later  let  us  take  another  cross  section  and 
examine  the  condition  of  the  various  groups.  The  first,  pre- 
ponderant in  1670,  has  dwindled  and  disintegrated:  Chris- 
tian preaching  either  persists  in  traditional  oratory,  to  which 
no  one  listens,  or  allows  itself  to  be  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of 
indulgence  toward  luxury;  the  moralists,  for  their  part,  go 
over  to  the  enemy.  The  second  group — economic  facts — 
has  taken  a  leading  place;  we  feel  the  effects  of  the  great 
industrial  and  commercial  transformations  at  the  close  of  the 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  AND  OF  MANNERS     285 

reign  of  Louis  XIV;  new  conditions  hold  sway  over  public 
opinion  and  modify  it  profoundly.  This  group  is  still  swell- 
ing. Lastly,  the  third  group — 'libertin'  and  epicurean  ideas 
— makes  a  new  move :  it  joins  forces  with  the  preceding  one. 
Henceforth  the  connection  is  clear  between  the  economic  as- 
pect of  the  question  of  luxury  and  its  moral  significance :  the 
progress  of  luxury  in  everyday  life  leads  to  its  justification  in 
moral  and  philosophical  theories. 

Finally,  another  thirty  years  later,  we  see  a  very  different 
relationship.  The  first  group  is  seemingly  submerged  and, 
for  the  time  being,  practically  reduced  to  silence.  We  must 
not,  however,  cease  to  heed  its  murmurings:  toward  1750, 
with  the  coming  of  Rousseau,  it  will  forcibly  raise  its  voice 
again.  The  other  groups,  on  the  contrary,  enlarge  and  ex- 
tend their  influence  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  Henceforth 
the  question  of  luxury  is  placed  on  an  economic  basis,  and, 
as  such,  luxury  finds,  among  those  who  most  faithfully  reflect 
the  general  opinion  of  their  time,  only  enthusiastic  apolo- 
gists. It  is  the  period  of  Le  Mondain  of  Voltaire:  literary 
thought  is  imbued  with  economic  preoccupation ;  we  find  a 
complete  reversal  since  1670  in  the  importance  of  the  various 
groups  of  facts  that  we  have  been  considering. 

It  would  be  perverting  the  sense  and  the  spirit  of  the 
method  just  sketched  to  conclude  that  it  deals  with  groups 
of  facts,  of  writers,  or  of  ideas,  to  the  exclusion  of  individual 
elements.  Far  from  this,  it  enables  us  to  define,  to  limit,  with 
great  precision  the  role  of  the  individual.  Though  I  have 
insisted  upon  the  interest  and  importance  of  organizing  facts 
into  coherent  and  homogeneous  groups,  you  must  not  forget 
that  this  is  merely  one  process  among  many  and  that  else- 
where I  have  tried  to  explain  the  action  of  an  individual  or 
of  a  book  and  to  facilitate  its  analysis.  It  is,  indeed,  by 


286  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

digging  in  both  these  directions  that  the  student  will  find  the 
richest  treasure.  He  should  discriminate  between  group 
psychology  and  individual  action.  He  should  contrast  the 
times  when  writers  echo  one  another,  in  a  tireless  round, 
with  the  moment  when  a  fresh,  vigorous  thought,  original  or 
rejuvenated,  sounds  a  new  note  in  the  monotonous  concert. 
He  should  mention  how  and  when  this  element,  the  product 
and  image  of  some  individual,  becomes  the  point  of  depar- 
ture for  a  new  series — the  generative  cell  of  a  new  group; 
he  should  trace  this  group  until  in  its  turn  it  is  broken  up  or 
transformed  by  a  personality  or  an  event  that  marks  its  end, 
as  some  other  personality  or  event  has  marked  its  beginning. 
In  short,  he  should  point  out  in  the  analysis  and  the  history 
of  these  complex  relations  the  respective  places  of  the  two 
elements  called  by  Tarde  "imitation"  and  "invention". 
"Social  transformations",  as  he  tells  us,  "are  explained  by 
imitated  individual  initiative"1  This  phrase,  taken  in  its 
true  meaning,  contains  a  programme  for  our  studies.  In  the 
history  of  "social  transformations"  what  is  the  book  if  not 
an  "individual  initiative"?  Let  us  therefore  ask  (i)  whether 
the  book  possesses  the  quality  that  may  accurately  be  called 
"initiative" ;  (2 )  whether  this  initiative  has  been  "imitated", 
—that  is,  whether  the  success  or  the  influence  of  the  book 
has  created  a  group;  (3)  whether  the  group  has  been  suf- 
ficiently powerful  to  transform  in  any  degree  the  existing 
social  conditions.2  I  believe  that,  thus  approached,  our  pro- 

aG.  Tarde,  "L'Invention  consideree  comme  moteur  de  1'evolution  sociale," 
Revue  Internationale  de  sociologie,  1902. 

2  In  the  article  already  cited  Tarde  gives  a  good  illustration  of  the  role 
played  in  the  transformation  of  social  conditions  by  the  individual, —  by  'in- 
vention,'—  which  for  us  means  the  writer  or  the  book.  He  explains  that  the 
consequences  of  an  influence  may  appear  to  the  superficial  observer  dispropor- 
tionate to  the  actual  value  or  force  of  that  influence,  owing  to  the  fact  that  an 
individual  influence  often  merely  "destroys  the  equilibrium" :  "When  the  touch 
of  a  bird's  wing  starts  an  avalanche,  it  is  indeed  a  very  tiny  force  compared 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE  AND  OF  MANNERS     287 

gramme  is  justly  divided  between  the  individual  and  the 
mass,  the  genius1  and  the  group. 

No  chapter  in  this  book  has  inspired  me  with  so  keen  a 
desire  to  conclude  by  giving  a  few  judicious,  clear  rules; 
no  chapter  has  made  me  feel  so  surely  the  impossibility  or  at 
least  the  imprudence  of  such  a  step.  I  shall  limit  myself  to 
summarizing  by  certain  suggestions  and  warnings  my  attempt 
to  define  the  attitude  of  mind  in  which  to  begin  and  to  carry 
on  the  study  of  literature  and  life  in  their  mutual  relations. 

Remember  that  few  problems  of  literary  history  are  con- 
fined to  the  domain  of  literature  proper,  without  overstep- 
ping its  bounds  on  one  side  or  another  or  bringing  us  into 
direct  contact  with  the  general  history  of  ideas  or  of  civiliza- 
tion. Do  not  try,  then,  to  save  trouble  by  arbitrarily  re- 
stricting your  study  to  the  literary  aspect  of  the  question; 
on  the  contrary,  face  the  difficulty  squarely,  with  the  under- 
standing that  here  lies  the  principal  interest,  the  true  value, 
of  your  subject. 

Never  be  content,  in  comparing  a  literary  work  with  the 
manners  or  the  ideas  of  an  epoch,  to  collect  anecdotes  or 
isolated  facts,  no  matter  how  interesting  and  pointed.  Seek 
the  general,  the  average,  the  normal — the  ensemble  of  the 
social,  moral,  worldly  life  of  the  place  or  period  studied. 

with  that  of  gravitation  and  molecular  cohesion — constant  forces  whose  un- 
stable equilibrium  has  been  jarred  by  this  slight,  accidental  shock.  The  shock 
is  none  the  less  the  explanation  of  the  avalanche.  ...  It  is  the  same  in  the 
world  of  human  beings.  The  variable  element,  accident,  germ,  is  represented  here 
by  individual  initiative,  invention.  The  stable  element  is  made  up  of  climate, 
soil,  race,  as  well  as  of  traditions,  customs,  inculcated  ideas,  acquired  habits." 

1When  I  say  'genius,'  I  do  not  mean  to  imply  that  only  the  very  great 
minds  or  the  very  great  writers  represent  the  'individual'  element  that  origi- 
nates social  transformations.  I  mean  simply  the  personality  that  invents  some- 
thing new  or  that  rediscovers  something  old.  Tarde  himself  says,  "The leaders 
of  the  world  are  not  its  great  men  but  the  great  thoughts  that  not  infre- 
quently take  up  their  abode  in  small  men  ", 


288  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

In  particular,  apply  this  principle  to  the  books  them- 
selves. Give  to  the  masterpieces,  or  to  the  works  that  show 
inventiveness,  the  place  they  deserve  as  elements  of  trans- 
formation; but  do  not  forget  that  they  reflect  less  exactly 
the  average  opinion  or  the  general  environment  than  does 
the  mass  of  imitative  works  that  succeeds  them. 

In  studying  mutual  transformations  and  reactions  a  mi- 
nute precision  in  chronology  is  the  sole  means  of  tracing 
exact  'curves'  and  of  placing  each  modifying  agent  in  his 
true  historical  position. 

Again,  as  these  transformations  and  these  modifications 
are  the  result  of  the  reciprocal  influence  of  book  and  public, 
take  care  to  define  with  extreme  exactness  the  nature,  depth, 
and  duration  of  this  influence.  Do  not  merely  affirm  and 
guess,  but  exhaust  every  means  of  investigation. 

Finally,  once  in  possession  of  the  facts,  group  them:  as- 
sociate those  of  coherent,  homogeneous  character.  Examine 
the  groups:  at  a  given  date  study  their  mutual  relations, 
their  comparative  sizes,  the  general  trend  of  their  courses. 
Do  they  sink  deep  or  spread  out  upon  the  surface  ?  At  other 
dates  make  the  same  study,  the  same  measurements.  Then 
compare  results.  You  will  find  that  the  curves  along  which 
these  transformations  are  moving,  the  points  of  intersection 
of  literature  and  of  life,  are  tracing  themselves  before  your 
eyes.  If,  on  the  summits  of  these  curves, — that  is,  at  the 
points  that  mark  a  change  of  direction, — you  succeed  in 
placing  the  individual  or  the  book  that  has  caused  the  change, 
I  believe  that  you  will  have  done  all  you  can  to  draw  a  true 
picture  of  a  moment  in  the  history  of  thought  and  the  history 
of  manners.  Doubtless  you  will  not  always  solve  every  prob- 
lem ;  but  you  will,  at  least,  have  clearly  stated  its  terms,  and 
when  you  have  failed  to  find  the  answer,  you  will  know  how 
and  why. 


CHAPTER  XII 
PREPARATION  AND  REDACTION  OF  A  THESIS 

In  my  opening  pages  I  explained  that  the  aim  of  this  book 
was  to  help  advanced  students  of  French  literature  to  engage 
successfully  in  research  work.  Up  to  this  point  we  have 
been  occupied  more  particularly  with  the  methods  of  dis- 
covering, criticizing,  and  preparing,  the  material:  we  must 
now  turn  to  constructing  and  organizing.  We  want  to  build, 
with  the  stones  that  we  have  hewn,  a  consistent  and  har- 
monious edifice;  to  do  this  we  must  consider  each  step  of 
the  work  in  turn.  I  am  far  from  intending  to  summarize 
in  a  few  pages  the  arts  of  rhetoric  and  of  composition;  I 
should  like  merely  to  ask  the  inexperienced  scholar  to  reflect 
on  certain  foreseeable  difficulties  and  certain  usual  mistakes. 

I.  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

The  choice  of  a  subject  is  undoubtedly  the  capital  point; 
it  is  also  the  point  that  is  commonly  treated  in  the  most 
casual  and  shortsighted  manner.  It  would  be  superfluous  to 
say  that  to  write  a  good  thesis  requires  a  good  subject,  did 
not  the  all-too-general  practice  prove  that  this  advice  is 
frequently  needed.  What  is  likely  to  take  place?  The  stu- 
dent hunts  up  some  professor  and  straightway  asks,  "Will 
you  give  me  a  subject  for  a  thesis?"  After  a  more  or  less 
hurried  discussion  the  student  departs  with  his  subject  in 
his  notebook — a  subject  naturally  in  far  greater  accord  with 
the  preoccupations  and  tastes  of  the  adviser  than  with  the 


2  go  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

ability  and  preference  of  the  prospective  writer.  To  begin  in 
this  way  is  neither  logical  nor  reasonable.  Never  forget  that 
a  subject  should  be  not  a  point  to  start  from,  but  a  decision  to 
reach :  I  mean  that  when  you  have  made  up  your  mind  to 
attempt  a  piece  of  research  work  or  a  thesis,  you  should  next 
decide  upon  a  field  of  special  interest — an  author,  a  century, 
a  question — vast  and  vague.  You  should  then  read,  explore, 
reflect;  little  by  little  circumscribe  the  field,  contract  the 
horizon,  until  such  time  as  you  shall  have  clearly  defined  the 
subject  that  deserves  your  interest  and  labor.  You  will  then 
be  no  stranger  to  it :  you  will  be  on  familiar  ground,  with  a 
wide  background  to  supply  solidity  and  vigor  to  your  research. 
Remember  that  any  thoroughly  good  subject  conforms  as 
far  as  possible  to  the  following  requirements : 

1.  It  should  not  be  too  large:  an  unlimited  subject  is  a 
great  handicap.    Shun  those  fine,  broad  topics  that  entail  a 
knowledge  of  the  literature  and  the  history  of  several  coun- 
tries.   They  are  too  heavy  for  your  unaccustomed  shoulders. 

2 .  It  should  possess  genuine  interest ;  that  is,  it  should  be 
so  linked  with  the  general  history  of  literature  or  of  civiliza- 
tion as  to  be  not  a  sterile  exhumation  of  dry  details  but 
a  real  contribution  to  the  fund  of  literary  or  historical 
knowledge. 

3.  It  should  be  new.    Before  proceeding,  you  should  make 
sure  that  the  bloom  has  not  been  rubbed  off.    Be  on  the 
lookout  for  articles  hidden  away  in  reviews,  or  you  may  be 
disillusioned  by  finding  that  your  subject  has  already  been 
thoroughly  investigated. 

4.  Do  not  struggle  against  physical  impossibilities.    Be- 
fore becoming  deeply  involved  inquire  where  and  how  you 
can  find  the  materials  essential  to  you.    Measure  the  amount 
of  work  that  you  can  accomplish  here  in  America  and  the 
amount  that  you  can  do  only  in  France,    Take  into  con- 


PREPARATION  OF  A  THESIS  291 

sideration  the  resources  of  the  libraries  to  which  you  have 
access;  the  complete  or  incomplete  collections  at  your  dis- 
posal,— in  short,  do  not  rush  ahead  until  you  know  ex- 
actly where  you  intend  to  go,  why  and  how  you  expect  to 
arrive  there. 

5.  Lastly,  be  loyal  toward  your  work,  which  means  that 
you  should  be  the  master  and  not  the  slave  of  your  subject. 
It  is  while  working  that  you  will  determine  its  exact  scope 
and  limits.  You  may  well  find  that  a  subject,  tempting  at 
first,  does  not  exist  in  the  form  you  supposed.  Do  not  hesi- 
tate an  instant:  give  it  up.  Stretch  it  if  it  is  too  narrow; 
shrink  it  if  it  is  too  broad.  Preparing  a  thesis  is  not  like 
answering  definite  questions  on  the  day  of  an  examination : 
for  your  thesis  you  yourself  ask  the  questions ;  you  yourself 
are  responsible  for  the  value  and  intelligence  of  the  ques- 
tions no  less  than  of  the  answers. 

II.  APPROACH  AND  PREPARATION 

As  you  advance  in  your  work,  as  you  clear  the  ground  in 
all  directions,  various  problems  will  spring  up  before  you. 
You  will  then  have  occasion  to  apply  the  advice  and  sugges- 
tions given  in  the  preceding  chapters ;  whether  dealing  with 
biography  or  bibliography,  sources  or  influence,  chronology 
or  authenticity,  you  will  continually  have  to  follow  the  same 
processes:  investigation  and  criticism  of  materials,  elimina- 
tion, organization,  redaction.  To  what  has  already  been  said, 
it  is  necessary  to  add  only  some  general  remarks. 

i.  Establish  your  bibliography  with  minute  care,  with 
no  preconceived  ideas  as  to  the  utility  or  futility  of  any 
reference.  Your  cards  should  be  clear  and  full,  as  has  been 
explained  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  entitled  "Implements  and 
Tools."  They  should  be  arranged  alphabetically  and  by  sub- 


2 92  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

ject  in  such  a  way  that  you  can  instantly  put  your  hand  on 
any  reference  either  to  a  given  author  or  to  a  specific  part 
of  your  work. 

2.  Follow  a  rigid  discipline  in  your  reading;  that  is,  or- 
ganize it  logically,  according  to  a  definite  scheme.    First, 
read  the  texts  by  your  author,  or  the  original  texts  relating 
to  your  subject.    Read  them  thoroughly :  do  not  be  content 
with  a  superficial  and  uncertain  acquaintance;  make  them 
part  of  yourself.    Read  and  reread  them  until  you  can  at  once 
locate  any  allusion,  word,  comparison,  or  shade  of  thought. 
You  will  not  work  to  full  advantage  on  a  text  until  the  day 
when  you  know  it  practically  by  heart.    Next,  choose  all  the 
reading  which,  though  it  may  have  no  direct  bearing  on  your 
subject  or  no  immediate  usefulness,  yet  gives  you  the  histori- 
cal, literary,  or  philosophical  atmosphere  requisite  to  its  proper 
treatment.  You  must  be  master  of  this  background,  under 
pain  of  producing  only  shallow  work  without  import  or  in- 
terest.  Finally,  run  through  all  the  works,  all  the  references, 
compiled  in  your  bibliography.   Very  soon  experience  will 
enable  you  to  distinguish  what  is  essential  from  what  is  super- 
fluous or  worthless.   Never  feel  obliged  to  discuss  seriously 
the  conclusions  of  any  works  not  in  themselves  serious.   A 
brief  note  at  the  bottom  of  a  page,  or  even  in  your  bibliog- 
raphy, will  generally  do  them  full  justice.  On  the  other  hand, 
examine  with  the  utmost  conscientiousness  everything  that 
supplies  you  with  any  important  information  or  point  of 
view.   Never  let  anything  turn  up  without  immediately  mak- 
ing a  note  of  it. 

3.  You  must,  however,  understand  how  to  take  notes 
and,  later,  how  to  use  them.    Make  them  abundant,  com- 
plete, exact. 

Make  them  abundant.    If,  your  research  ended,  many  still 
remain  unused,  so  much  the  worse.    Yet  this  is  better  than 


PREPARATION  OF  A  THESIS  293 

to  regret  not  having  taken  them  when  you  had  the  chance. 
Besides,  if  they  have  served  no  purpose  on  this  occasion, 
they  may  perhaps  do  so  on  another;  in  the  meantime  you 
have  learned  something  in  the  taking. 

Make  them  complete :  do  not,  in  order  to  gain  a  minute  or 
two,  summarize  instead  of  transcribing  a  passage,  if  it  is 
worth  preserving  at  all. 

Make  them  exact,  so  as  to  be  able,  when  the  time  comes, 
to  incorporate  them  in  your  work  as  quotations  or  references 
without  consulting  again  the  books  from  which  you  copied 
them.  Some  writers  have  a  habit  of  inclosing  their  notes  in 
quotation  marks  whenever  the  text  is  exactly  reproduced. 
These  signs  show  that  the  extract  may  be  inserted  as  it  is ; 
their  absence,  that  the  note  is  merely  a  resume  or  an 
approximation  of  the  text.  I  consider  this  a  good  practice. 

Always  write  your  notes  on  loose  leaves, — never  in  bound 
notebooks.  Always  use  the  same  size,  not  so  small  that  the 
note  will  be  cramped  or  will  run  over  several  pages,  nor  so 
big  as  to  be  clumsy.  Never  write  on  more  than  one  side  of 
the  paper,  and  put  only  one  note  on  a  page.  Otherwise,  in 
sorting  your  notes  you  will  have  to  copy  many  of  them. 

While  working  on  a  writer,  you  will  be  handling  at  least 
three  classes  of  notes:  quotations  taken  from  his  books; 
extracts  from  books  or  documents  contemporary  with  him; 
notes  on  modern  works  of  erudition,  criticism,  or  reference. 
As  a  help  in  classifying  your  material,  why  not  choose 
different-colored  paper  for  each  kind  of  note? 

Whenever  possible,  immediately  upon  taking  a  note  give 
it  some  title,  even. if  nothing  more  than  a  heading  that  de- 
fines, summarizes,  and  emphasizes  its  interest  and  signifi- 
cance. This  precaution  will  compel  you  to  reflect,  to  weigh 
the  interest  and  the  value  of  the  text  that  you  have  copied, 
to  extract  from  it  some  useful  suggestions;  without  it  the 


2Q4  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

same  text,   reread  several  weeks  or  months  later,  might 
convey  to  you  no  idea  whatever. 

Finally,  do  not  accumulate  notes  by  the  hundred  and  then 
by  the  thousand,  only  to  let  them  lie  in  your  boxes  until  the 
day  when,  deciding  that  your  search  for  material  is  com- 
pleted, you  turn  to  its  redaction.  This  is  a  deplorable  method. 
On  the  contrary,  reread  your  notes  continually,  the  oftener 
the  better ;  reread  them,  varying  the  order ;  reread  them  each 
time  that  you  add  another  extract.  This  constant  contact 
with  your  swelling  mass  of  notes  will  be  an  incentive  to  reflec- 
tions, doubts,  associations  of  ideas,  discoveries  of  relations 
and  connections,  that  at  the  outset  you  had  not  even  sus- 
pected. Each  time  that  an  idea  strikes  you  in  this  way,  jot 
it  down,  without  waiting  a  second,  without  waiting  even  to 
read  the  following  note.  Nothing  is  so  fleeting  as  these  as- 
sociations or  thoughts :  if  you  do  not  close  your  hand  on  them 
when  they  first  occur  to  you,  they  will  escape  and  may  never 
come  back.  Experience  proves  the  utility  of  this  practice: 
after  some  months  you  will  be  astonished  to  see  the  amount 
not  only  of  external  material  but  of  personal  work  thus  col- 
lected, and  to  discover  how  helpful  are  the  results  of  this 
method  when  it  is  time  to  construct  and  organize. 

III.   WORK  OF  ORGANIZATION:  DETERMINATION  OF 
PROBLEMS 

Let  us  suppose  that  you  are  now  in  possession  of  all  your 
documents.  You  have  read  and  reread  your  notes ;  you  have 
added  your  personal  thoughts  and  reactions  to  the  informa- 
tion collected  from  your  reading.  Do  not  believe  that  from 
this  time  forward  you  should  rush  headlong,  write  at  top 
speed,  race  from  page  to  page.  You  will  save  time  and 
inevitably  improve  the  quality  of  your  work  if  you  allow 


PREPARATION  OF  A  THESIS  295 

all  this  material  to  ripen  and  mature  in  your  mind  for  a 
fairly  long  period.  Force  yourself  to  talk  about  the  results 
of  your  researches  and  of  your  deliberation;  there  is  no 
better  way  of  learning  to  express  definitely  the  ideas  still 
seething  nebulously  in  your  subconscious  mind.  If  some 
interesting  point  is  brought  to  light  in  this  way,  verify  it  and 
make  a  memorandum  of  it  after  the  conversation  is  over. 
Then,  when  you  have  completely  mastered  your  subject,  be- 
gin to  arrange  and  to  write. 

At  this  stage  be  governed  by  a  new  consideration:  pick 
out  every  problem  contained  in  your  subject  and  try  to  give 
to  every  point  the  form  of  a  problem.  Do  not  be  content 
merely  to  arrange  your  notes  in  a  logical  or  a  chronological 
order  or  to  divide  your  material  into  chapters  and  para- 
graphs. Keep  repeating  to  yourself  that  in  every  question, 
general  or  particular,  there  is  always  some  obscurity  to  clear 
up,  some  uncertainty  to  dispel.  Try  to  find  the  definite  or 
approximate  solution  or,  if  no  solution  is  possible,  give  the 
reason.  By  this  method  you  will  create  centres  of  interest 
and  supply  a  principle  of  organization. 

Again,  in  the  heterogeneous  mass  that  you  have  gathered, 
some  is  new  and  some  is  old.  Be  loyal  toward  yourself  and 
toward  your  readers  in  differentiating  clearly  between  the 
two  and  in  making  the  new  predominant,  the  old  subordi- 
nate. The  reader  of  any  work  of  this  type  is  already  well 
informed  on  the  subject  and  expects  from  you  only  what 
you  are  able  to  offer  as  a  personal  and  original  contribution ; 
anything  else,  no  matter  how  cleverly  disguised,  how  cun- 
ningly unlabeled,  is  mere  rhetorical  amplification. 

The  plan  of  the  work  admits  of  no  general  advice:  each 
subject  has  a  plan  of  its  own,  and  yours  will  be  good  if  it 
allows  you  to  bring  out  every  discovery  pertinent  to  the 
question;  if  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  logical  or  the 


296  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

chronological  order;  if  it  does  not  necessitate  dispersing 
through  several  chapters  a  question  that  should  be  dealt  with 
as  a  whole;  and,  finally,  if  it  does  not  entail  unacceptable 
repetitions.  This  last  fault  occurs  repeatedly  in  monographs 
in  which  both  the  life  and  the  works  of  an  author  are 
considered.  Should  they  be  treated  separately?  Should  the 
criticism  of  his  works  be  incorporated  into  the  history  of  his 
life  ?  There  are  as  many  answers  as  there  are  subjects ;  one 
thing,  however,  is  certain :  if,  in  discussing  the  works,  you 
are  forced  to  repeat  what  you  have  already  said  in  the 
biographical  chapters,  your  plan  is  poor,  and  you  must  seek 
one  that  does  not  separate  what  in  reality  is  inseparable. 

Here  again  the  scrutiny  of  well-constructed  works  will 
furnish  many  suggestions.  Choose  some  good  theses,  some 
monographs;  pen  in  hand,  attempt  to  discover  how  they 
have  been  built  up ;  set  yourself  the  task  of  reconstructing 
the  stages  of  composition  through  which  the  author  has 
passed.  This  is  the  best  possible  discipline. 

1  have  always  considered  V.  Giraud's  Pascal*  very  helpful 
in  this  respect.    It  is  composed  of  inedited  notes — the  out- 
line and  the  subject  matter  of  an  excellent  course  given  at 
the  University  of  Fribourg.   In  it  you  may  observe  a  work 
in  the  stage  intermediary  between  the  search  for  documents 
and  the  definite  redaction  of  the  book,  with  the  skeleton,  the 
joints,  the  processes  of  arranging  facts  and  ideas,  frankly 
visible.2   More  helpful  still,  because  of  the  scope  of  its  re- 
search and  the  variety  of  the  points  discussed,  are  Lanson's 

a8vo.    1898. 

2  From  the  first  lecture  of  Giraud's  book  I  detach  this  page,  which  offers  a 
widely  applicable  programme : 

"Certain  principles  of  criticism  should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  while 
writing  a  literary  monograph  : 

"  i.  Every  individual  is  a  member  of  a  group ;  therefore  it  is  necessary  to 
determine  exactly  the  influence  exerted  over  him  by  this  group. 


PREPARATION  OF  A  THESIS  297 

notes  and  outlines  for  his  course  at  Columbia  University, 
Esquisse  d'une  histoire  de  la  tragedie  frangaise.1 
Let  me  add  two  remarks: 

1.  Beware  of  exaggerating  the  importance  of  the  hero 
whom  you  have  chosen.    Many  secondary  writers  not  only 
deserve  but  demand  investigation.    Nevertheless,  the  false 
idea  that  such  investigations  should  inevitably  take  the  form 
of  a  rehabilitation  accompanied  with  imprecations  on  an 
unjust  and  blind  posterity  detracts  from  the  value  of  many 
theses  and  essays.   Throwing  light  on  an  author  does  not 
mean  surrounding  him  with  a  halo.    Give  him,  not  a  better 
place  than  he  had,  but  his  true  place  in  his  own  time  and 
environment. 

2.  In  order  to  succeed  in  this,  never  lose  sight  of  time 
and  environment.    For  all  good  portraits  the  background 
has  an  importance  that  the  genuine  artist  never  slights.  He 
realizes  that  the  figure  will  acquire  its  just  value  only  if 
the  setting  is  correct  and  appropriate.    In  your  turn,  if  you 
neglect  the  background  of  your  canvas,  if  you  isolate  your 
author  instead  of  painting  author  and  environment  together, 
you  cannot  properly  bring  out  his  significance. 

IV.  FORM  AND  EXPRESSION 

Lastly,  use  the  same  artistic  care  in  the  final  redaction  of 
your  work.  Even  though  you  may  have  planned  your  outline 

"2.  Every  individual  affects  the  group  he  belongs  to;  therefore  it  is  neces- 
sary to  study  the  influence  exercised  by  him  upon  his  contemporaries  and 
successors. 

"3.  Every  individual  develops  with  the  passage  of  time;  therefore  it  is 
necessary  to  conform  to  chronology  and  to  follow,  step  by  step,  the  succes- 
sive phases  of  his  development. 

"4.  Every  individual  is  infinitely  more  valuable  through  his  work  than 
through  his  personality  ;  therefore  it  is  necessary  to  subordinate  the  study  of 
the  man  to  the  study  of  his  work."  (P.  n.) 

1  Columbia  University  Press,  New  York,  1920. 


2  98  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

correctly,  it  is  not  enough  to  empty  your  box  of  notes  into 
a  well-proportioned  frame.  You  should  give  to  your  ideas 
the  most  artistic  and  the  most  agreeable  form  discovera- 
ble. I  do  not  mean  that  you  should  employ  some  affected  co- 
quetry of  style,  or  trim  up  facts,  dates,  and  discussions  with 
meaningless  frills  and  niceties.  There  is,  however,  no  reason 
why  a  scholarly  piece  of  research  work  should  be  dull,  heavy, 
unreadable.  Why  not  remember  Michelet's  sound  advice? 
"Criticism  and  History",  he  said,  " being  works  of  art  as  well 
as  of  science,  should  be  presented  free  from  the  contrivances 
and  scaffoldings  used  in  their  construction."  This  means: 
Do  not  attempt  to  impress  your  reader  by  the  enumeration 
of  superfluous  bibliographical  references  or  by  unassimilated, 
inconsequent  footnotes.  Produce  all  your  proofs,  all  your 
facts,  all  your  dates,  on  condition  that  they  signify  some- 
thing. Always  tend  to  lighten  and  eliminate,  never  to  pad 
and  amplify.  Above  all,  be  terse,  and  remember  that  this 
can  be  attained  only  through  patient  toil:  Pascal  wrote, 
at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  Provinciate,  "I  have  made 
this  letter  so  long  because  I  have  not  had  time  to  make  it 
shorter". 

Furthermore,  you  must  keep  in  mind  a  last,  but  important, 
requirement.  Your  work  should  be  a  harmonious  whole,  and 
its  general  tone  suitable  to  the  subject.  A  style  that  is  per- 
fectly appropriate  if  you  are  dealing  with  Voltaire  would  be 
out  of  place  if  you  are  writing  about  Bossuet.  If  I  read  a 
thesis  on  Villon,  I  should  be  willing  to  accept  a  somewhat 
less  formal  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  writer  than  would  be 
tolerable  in  a  book  on  Vigny.  Sainte-Beuve,  who  was  not 
only  a  scholar  but  also  an  artist,  understood  how  to  modulate 
his  voice  differently  when  speaking  of  Rabelais  than  when 
speaking  of  Chateaubriand. 


PREPARATION  OF  A  THESIS  299 

In  short,  raise  your  ideal  above  the  simple  gathering  of 
facts  and  of  names,  no  matter  how  accurate  and  trustworthy 
the  data;  constantly  ask  yourself  whether  you  may  not  be 
able,  without  detracting  from  the  value  of  your  work,  to  lend 
it  a  more  persuasive  force  and  a  more  pleasing  exterior.  In 
this  manner  you  will  escape  calling  down  about  your  ears 
the  cruel  condemnation  with  which  Voltaire  crushed  the 
honest  and  unfortunate  Abbe  Trublet : 

II  compilait,  compilait,  compilait  .  .  . 
Et  nous  lassait  sans  jamais  se  lasser. 


CONCLUSION 

The  foregoing  chapters  certainly  do  not  exhaust  all  the 
problems  with  which  the  student  may  satisfy  his  curiosity: 
they  present  examples  merely  of  possible  undertakings  and 
explain  by  what  methods  to  obtain  results.  Literary  history, 
like  all  historical  research,  is  a  route  strewn  with  obstacles, 
difficulties,  and  snares;  to  describe  them  to  the  inexperi- 
enced traveler,  to  warn  him,  to  save  him  from  aimless  roving, 
from  costly  squandering  of  time  and  strength, — this  is  all 
that  can  or  should  be  done  for  him.  Guided  in  this  way,  he 
is  more  likely  to  acquire  the  valuable  qualities  so  often 
mentioned  in  these  pages :  a  regard  for  accuracy  in  detail,  a 
habit  of  orderly  and  methodical  investigation,  and  especially 
that  scientific  sense  quick  to  distinguish  between  degrees  of 
certainty,  and  scrupulous  to  affirm  nothing  that  has  not  been 
clearly  established  and  recognized  as  true. 

Nevertheless,  no  matter  how  excellent  these  results  may 
be,  this  book  would  completely  fail  in  its  intention  were  it 
not  to  encourage  the  student  to  look  farther  and  higher. 
Although  the  author  wants  to  help  him  in  his  effort  to  be- 
come a  faithful  servant  of  the  science  that  discovers  and 
studies  facts,  he  would  be  singularly  averse  to  seeing  him 
become  a  "worshiper  of  facts",  to  quote  an  expression  that 
has  been  used  in  reproach.  Doubtless  the  most  elementary 
scientific  loyalty  requires  subjection  to  facts,  but  only  so  far 
as  facts  are  a  basis  for  deductions  and  conclusions :  facts  are 
not  an  end  in  themselves. 

300 


/  V 


CONCLUSION  301 

The  very  name  "literary  history"  includes  two  sorts  of 
intellectual  activity:  history  on  the  one  hand,  literature  on 
the  other.  As  history  it  entails  a  combination  of  minute  doc- 
umentation, exact  research,  and  scrupulousness  of  method. 
As  literature  it  implies  the  faculty  of  reacting  to  a  work  of 
art  with  all  possible  delicacy,  sensitiveness,  and  taste;  it 
implies  comprehension,  appreciation,  enjoyment. 

The  discipline  that  a  student  of  literary  history  is  invited 
to  undergo  should,  then,  on  no  pretext  whatever  divert  or 
distract  him  from  the  impressionism  that  is  not  only  legiti- 
mate but  essential :  it  should  lead  him  there  by  the  straight- 
est  and  surest  paths,  secure  from  wasting  himself  in  vain 
and  empty  words. 

The  final  aim  of  these  researches  is  not  to  form  narrow, 
circumscribed  minds,  absorbed  in  childish  curiosity  about 
learned  details,  or  in  the  heaping  up  of  interminable  and 
undigested  commentaries ;  it  is  not  to  lose  sight  of  the  forest 
while  wearing  oneself  out,  microscope  in  hand,  studying  a 
bit  of  leaf  or  a  dried  flower ;  still  less  is  it  to  consume  brain 
and  life  in  commentating  on  commentators,  and  on  the 
errors  and  stupidities  with  which  they  so  often  clutter  the 
great  works  of  literature.  If  certain  clumsy  enthusiasts  have 
done  this,  they  have  been  false  to  the  ideal  of  literary  history 
and  have  simply  shown  the  inadequacy  of  their  skill  and 
literary  sense.  They  have  failed  to  understand  that  the  true 
literary  historian  is  he  who  places  an  irreproachable  scientific 
loyalty  and  a  tried  method  at  the  disposal  of  a  keen  sensi- 
bility, an  exquisite  perceptiveness,  and  a  delicate  taste. 

"Philology",  wrote  Taine,  "is  a  subterranean  passage, 
dark,  narrow,  and  bottomless,  along  which  people  crawl  in- 
stead of  walk;  so  distant  from  the  air  and  the  light  that 
they  forget  the  air  and  the  light,  and  end  by  finding  satis- 
factory and  natural  the  smoky  rays  of  the  dismal  lamp  that 


302  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

they  trail  behind  them.  After  staying  there  a  few  years  they 
declare  that  the  sky  is  a  dream  of  the  feeble-minded."1 

Let  the  student  take  this  admirable  image  as  a  sharp  warn- 
ing. Even  if  in  this  book  the  author  has  intended  to  hand 
him  the  little  lamp  to  guide  him  through  the  labyrinths  and 
obstacles  of  the  blind  tunnel,  he  would  prefer  never  to  see 
him  enter  there  if  by  so  doing  he  must  lose  sight  of  the 
splendor  of  the  open  sky  and  shut  out  from  his  lungs  the 
fresh,  life-giving  breeze.  Let  him  become  a  good  workman 
in  the  mine  of  science ;  but,  first  and  foremost,  let  him  be- 
come or  remain  a  man  of  taste,  an  artist,  and — to  use  an  old 
word  of  rich  significance — a  connoisseur. 

Taine  said  also,  "If  we  want  to  understand  a  work  of  art, 
we  must  believe  in  it".  This  saying,  on  close  inspection,  con- 
tains an  entire  programme  for  our  young  students  of  litera- 
ture, a  programme  made  up  of  two  consistent  parts:  faith 
in  a  work  of  art,  and  a  method  of  understanding  and  ap- 
preciating it. 

Faith  in  a  work  of  art  is  the  conviction  that  art  broadens 
and  brightens  our  lives,  and  that,  since  the  creation  of  beauty 
by  the  artist  corresponds  to  the  discovery  of  truth  by  the 
scholar,  we  should  let  ourselves  be  carried  away  by  beauty 
just  as  whole-heartedly  as  we  acquiesce  in  intellectual  cer- 
tainties. To  have  faith  in  a  work  of  art,  literary  or  plastic, 
is  to  keep  the  fresh,  precious  faculty  of  admiration  from 
withering  within  us;  it  is  to  seek  that  peaceful  communion 
with  ourselves,  that  activity  of  intimate  life,  that  is  a  condi- 
tion of  the  budding  and  blossoming  of  taste.  This  is  what 
our  students,  even  those  most  attached  to  the  scientific  spirit, 
must  never  lose  sight  of :  the  infinite  worth  of  the  inner  life ; 
the  conviction  that  in  the  midst  of  the  driest  researches  they 
should,  deep  down  in  themselves,  preserve  a  quiet  retreat; 

1Les  Philosophes  classiques  du  dix-neuvitme  siecle  (1868  edition),  p.  194, 


CONCLUSION  303 

the  conviction  also  that  they  shall  not  come  to  grief  if  they 
respond  in  good  faith  to  the  things  that  'grip'  them,  that  time 
spent  in  rousing  the  beauty  that  sleeps  in  every  page  is  not 
ill-spent,  and  that  to  admire  is  not  necessarily  to  be  deceived. 

But  to  this  faith  must  be  added  an  understanding  of  the 
work  of  art :  to  stop  short  at  this  sincere  and  lively  emotion 
would  be  to  halt  midway.  There  must  be  also — and  here 
literary  history  is  essential — a  clear  insight  into  the  work 
and  the  myriad  relations,  both  delicate  and  complex,  that 
define  and  explain  it.  The  student  should  know  how  to  ask 
questions  that  will  help  him  to  discover  its  meaning  and 
value.  He  should  realize  that  a  masterpiece  remains  sealed 
and  dead  to  all  who  do  not  try  to  grasp  it  by  a  strict  and  wise 
method,  and  that  real  admiration  is  not  an  attitude  of  lazy 
relaxation  but  the  reward  of  a  hard,  wholesome  struggle  be- 
tween the  admirable  work  and  the  admiring  man.  "What  is 
this  work?"  he  will  ask  himself,  "and  what  artist  has  im- 
agined and  produced  it?  What  inspiration  stirred  his  mind 
or  heart  ?  To  what  lineage  does  it  belong  ?  Has  it  anteced- 
ents and  sources  ?  Under  what  conditions  was  it  written  and 
published?  With  what  artistic  ideal  is  it  connected,  and  in 
what  degree  does  it  reach  perfection  ?  What  is  its  technique  ? 
What  society  does  it  reflect?  From  what  vast  currents  of 
ideas  is  it  derived,  and  what  has  been  its  influence?  In 
what  do  its  lasting  value,  its  attraction,  its  charm,  its  life- 
blood,  consist?"  Only  by  answering  these  questions  will  he 
judge  sanely  and  with  taste  and  produce  a  justifiable  aesthetic 
reaction. 

The  author  knows  that  this  point  of  view  will  not  fail  on 
certain  sides  to  raise  violent  objections.  He  knows  that,  for 
many  people,  it  comes  too  close  to  that  "rusty  learning  of 
the  pedants"  spoken  of  by  Moliere.  He  knows  that  others 
see  no  reason  for  the  existence  of  any  type  of  criticism  not 


304  PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 

founded  on  a  preestablished  philosophical,  religious,  or  aes- 
thetic doctrine.  Lastly,  he  knows  that  this  idea  of  turning 
taste  into  a  sort  of  historical  method  is  revolting  to  certain 
minds, — minds  that  may  be  excellent  but  that  are  less  in- 
clined to  enter  upon  patient,  rigorous,  scholarly  work  than 
to  protest  with  expressions  of  injured  sensibility  against  the 
day  predicted  by  Joubert  when  "lusty  laborers  will  make  it 
their  business  to  judge  the  flowers  of  literature". 

We  should,  however,  take  no  part  in  these  revolts  or  ap- 
prehensions but  should  be  confident  that  just  such  discipline, 
scientific  in  its  aim,  historical  in  its  methods,  aesthetic  in  its 
inspiration,  far  from  "treating  matters  of  feeling  geometri- 
cally", will  preserve  in  the  many  "esprits  geometriques"  of 
our  day  the  necessary  proportion  of  "esprit  de  finesse".  It 
will  give  them  a  "clear  vision"  for  those  "delicate  princi- 
ples" in  literature  that  do  not  attract  the  admiration  or  the 
blame  of  the  vulgar.  It  will  decline  to  form  those  dull,  empty 
minds  that  Pascal  says  are  "ni  fins,  ni  geometres". 

The  task  is  unassuming  and  slow,  but  it  may  prove  tempt- 
ing. It  lends  itself,  for  masters  and  disciples  alike,  to  no  bril- 
liant dissertations  or  neat  witticisms.  But  it  is  based  on  firm 
ground  and  leads  to  sure,  if  limited,  conclusions.  When  our 
students  branch  out  on  their  own  account, — although  they 
will  not  with  aggressive  confidence  settle  questions  in  every 
field  of  thought  and  art,  sometimes  correctly  and  sometimes 
incorrectly,— they  may  at  least  hope  for  the  upright  con- 
science of  the  critic  who  judges  only  what  he  knows, — and 
perhaps  also  for  what  Anatole  France  calls  "a  natural  friend- 
ship for  beauty". 


INDEX 


NOTE.    The  reference  is  to  pages.    Reference  to  a  note  is  indicated  by  a  figure 
followed  by  n. 


Academic  dissertations,  25-26 

Academic  franchise,  132 

Ackermann,  Mme,  233 

Alline,  H.,  95  n. 

Amiel,  233 

Amyot,  94  n.,  96,  99,  101,  188 

Anaxagoras,  107 

Anonymous  books,  24 

Arbelet,  P.,  101  n. 

Armaingaud,  Dr.,  on  authenticity  of 

the  Contr'un,  176-189 
Arnauld,  175,  275 
Arnould,  L.,  211  n. 
Arrian,  97 
Ascoli,  G.,  189  n. 
Ashford,  Daisy,  157  n. 
Ashton,  H.,  252  n.,  257  n. 
Asselineau,  Ch.,  69  n. 
Attribution,  problems  of,  157-193 
Aulard,  A.,  i6on. 
Authenticity,  problems  of,  157-193 

Babbitt,  I.,  12  n. 

Bacon,  F.,  260  n. 

Baldensperger,  F.,  quoted,  16  n.,  29, 
46  n.,  220  n.,  226  ».,  232  n.,  244, 
249  n. ;  Bibliographic  critique  de 
Goethe  en  France,  81 ;  on  Vigny, 
123 ;  on  Helena's  date,  142 ;  Goethe 
en  France,  247 

Balzac,  influence  of,  231 

Banville,  Th.  de,  213 

Barber,  M.,  101 

Barbier,  A.,  24 


Barckhausen,  H.,  on  Montesquieu, 
90 n.;  on  the  Contr'un,  176 n. 

Barine,  A.,  220  n. 

Barre,  A.,  136 

Barrere,  J.,  17671. 

Barrie,  J.  M.,  157  n. 

Bartram,  W.,  97 

Baudelaire,  editions  of,  37  n.,  200  n. 

Baudrillart,  H.,  268 

Bayle,  107,  189  «.,  271 

Beaugrand,  C.,  189  n. 

Beaulieux,  21  n. 

Beaunier,  A.,  200  n. 

Becq  de  Fouquieres,  107,  197 

Bedier,  J.,  on  the  Entretien  de  Pascal 
avec  M.  de  Sad,  41-42 ;  quoted, 
47  n.,  97  n. ;  on  text  of  Les  Tra- 
giques,  48-50;  on  Chateaubriand, 
99  n.,  214;  on  the  Paradoxe  sur  le 
comedien,  i6on.,  166-169 

Bengesco,  G.,  70 

Berger,  B.,  172 

Bergerat,  E.,  127  «. 

Berkeley,  248 

Bernard,  Cl.,  69«.,  133 

Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre,  264 

Bernheim,  E.,  157  «. 

Bernier,  277,  278,  284 

Berret,  P.,  on  La  Legende  des  siecles, 
68,  97  n.,  98  n.,  103-104,  122,  126; 
on  chronology  of  Les  Contem- 
plations, 149  n. 

Bersot,  270 

Betz,  L.  P.,  29 


3°5 


3°6 


PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 


Beuve,  254  n. 

Bibliographical  evidence,  in  problems 
of  authenticity,  170 

Bibliographical  index  cards,  how  to 
make  out,  34-35 

Bibliography,  general  bibliography, 
and  bibliography  of  modern  French 
literature,  13-36;  national  bibliog- 
raphies, 20-24;  establishing  a  criti- 
cal bibliography,  70-81 

Bibliotheque  nationale,  various  cata- 
logues, 27 

Binet,  Cl.,  68 

Biography,  treatment  of  biographical 
material,  210-224 

Birch-Hirschfeld,  169  n. 

Eire,  E.,  220  n. 

Bisi,  A.,  258  n. 

Bissipat,  G.  de,  171 

Blanchemain,  editor  of  Ronsard,  53, 
171 

Blossom,  F.  A.,  156  n. 

Boileau,  207,  258  n. 

Boisguillebert,  270 

Boislisle,  De,  editor  of  Saint-Simon, 

64 

Bonnefon,  P.,  128;  on  the  Contr'un, 
i76n.,  184-186 

Bossuet,  books  on,  28 n.;  text  of, 
corrected,  46  n. ;  specimen  of  spell- 
ing, 58  n. ;  critical  bibliography, 
76;  ideas  of,  on  luxury,  265,  270, 
271 

Boston  Public  Library,  28 

Boswell,  255  n. 

Boulenger,  J.,  editor  of  Rabelais, 
169  n.,  255  n. 

Bourdaloue,  267 

Bourmont,  A.  de,  40  n. 

Bourrilly,  68 

Bouvy,  257  n. 

Braunschvig,  M.,  ign. 

Breuillac,  M.,  234  n. 

British  Museum,  General  Catalogue, 
26-27 


Brockhaus'     Konversations-Lexikon, 

34 

Bruguiere  de  Sorsum,  142 
Brunei,  L.,  i6on.,  161  n. 
Brunet,  G.,  24 
Brunetiere,  n  n.,  12  n.,  19  n.,  44,  127, 

200  n. 

Brunot,  F.,  30,  58  n. 
Brunschvicg,  L.,  66 
Buffenoir,  H.,  254  n. 
Buhle,  P.,  126  n. 
Burke,  239,  240 
Byron,  123,  140,  141,  247  n. 

Caesar,  Julius,  153 

Cahen,  A.,  editor  of  Telemaque,  68 

Cailhava,  160 

Calvin,  text  of  the  Institution  chre- 
tienne,  52 

Canfield,  D.  F.,  257  n. 

Caro,  A.,  233 

Caron,  P.,  14  n. 

Carr6,  J.  M.,  247  n. 

Cassagne,  A.,  127,  200  n. 

Castel  (le  pere),  105 

Catalogues  of  libraries,  26-28 

Caussy,  F.,  93 

Cazamian,  L.,  264 

Celani,  H.,  24  n. 

Cesalpino,  107 

Chamard,  H.,  editor  of  Du  Bellay, 
66;  on  La  Princesse  de  Cleves, 
104 n.;  on  Quintil  Horatian,  189 n. 

Champion,  P.,  68,  255  n. 

Charavay,  A.,  72  n. 

Charles  d'Orleans,  255  n. 

Charlevoix,  99 

Charlier,  G.,  246  n. 

Charpentier,  G.  H.,  251  n. 

Chastellain,  G.,  171 

Chateaubriand,  sources,  97,  99;  Cha- 
teaubriand and  Vigny,  123;  biog- 
raphy, 212,  214;  influence,  237, 
239,  256 

Chatelain,  H.,  200  n. 


INDEX 


307 


Chatelet,  M^e  du,  no 

Chenier,  A.,  a  line  of,  corrected,  44; 
editions,  51 ;  punctuation  in  Le 
Jeune  Malade,  61 ;  influence  on  Ro- 
manticism, 86 ;  sources  of  La  Jeune 
Tarentine,  107-108;  influence  on 
Vigny,  140,  142  ;  versification,  207 ; 
influence,  257,  261 

Chenier,  M.  J.  de,  246 

Cherel,  A.,  245  n.,  251  n.,  254  n.,  260 

Chinard,  G.,  99,  258  w. 

Chronology  (in  literary  history)  ,132- 
156 

Cirot,  134 

Clairon,  Mile,  160,  163 

Claudin,  A.,  252  n. 

Cleaning  up,  correcting  a  text,  42-47 

Cledat,  L.,  58  n. 

Clement,  L.,  200  n. 

Cohen,  G.,  4 

Colbert,  275 

Cole,  G.  W.,  73  n.,  76  n. 

Colet,  Louise,  69  n. 

Commentary,  in  an  edition :  linguis- 
tic and  grammatical,  62-63 ;  liter- 
ary, 63-64 

Comparative  literature,  bibliography, 
28-29 

Comte,  A.,  248 

Condillac,  257 

Cons,  L.,  169  n. 

Constant,  B.,  edition  of  Adolphe,  68; 
bibliography,  78;  biography,  220  n. 

Cooper,  F.,  125,  255  n. 

Corbiere,  T.,  69  n. 

Cordier,  H.,  78  n. 

Coreal,  Fr.,  in 

Corneille,  P.,  bibliography,  28 n.; 
date  of  Le  Cid,  132 ;  date  of  Poly- 
eucte,  136;  P.  Louys  on  Corneille 
and  Moliere,  189  n.;  versification, 
200  n ;  Corneille  in  England,  257  n. ; 
Corneille  and  Spain,  260 

Courteault,  P.,  220  n. 

Courtney,  W.  P.,  16 


Critical  apparatus,  how  to  arrange, 

56-58 

Croiset,  A.,  46  n. 
Currier,  T.  F.,  28 
Cyrano  de  Bergerac,  254,  256 

Dalmeyda,  G.,  44  n. 

D'Ancona,  as  editor  of  Montaigne's 

Voyage,  44 
Dancourt,  269 
Dannheisser,  E.,  138  w. 
Daragon,  254  n. 
Darmesteter,  A.,  30 
Darwin,  133 
D'Aubignac,  Abbe,  137 
D'Aubigne,  A.,  text  of  Les  Tragiques, 

48-50,  68 
Daubigny,  126 
Dedieu,  J.,  89 
Delille,  241 
Dellon,  125 
Descartes,   133 ;   influence,  248,  257, 

261  n. 

Deschamps,  E.,  69  n. 
Des  Cognets,  59 
Desfeuilles,  66 

Des  Granges,  C.  M.,  134  n.,  255  n. 
Deshoulieres,  Mme,  277 
Desnoiresterres,  220  n.,  254  n. 
Despois,  66 
De  Vinne,  T.  L.,  73  n. 
Dezeimeris,  A.,  176  n. 
Dickens,  256 
Diderot,    115;    authenticity    of    the 

Paradoxe  sur  le  comedien,  158-166, 

277  n. 
Didot,  34 
Dietrich,  F.,  32 
Dimoff,  P.,  51 
Diogenes,  107 

Dissertations,  academic,  25-26 
Dorbec,  P.,  125  n. 
Dorchain,  A.,  197 
Dorison,  L.,  44 
Doumic,  R.,  i6on. 


308 


PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 


Dreyfus-Brisac,  E.,  87 

Dreyss,  C.,  133 

Drouet,  Juliette,  147 

Druon,  214 

Du  Bellay,  66,  86,  118-119 

Du  Camp,  M.,  127  n. 

Duclos,  275 

Dufourcq,  134 

Dumas,  A.  (pere),  69  n. 

Dumesnil,  218 

Dunn,  W.  H.,  211  n. 

Dupin,  H.,  145-148 

Dupuy,  E.,  quoted,  120,  123;  on 
Vigny,i26;  onVerlaine,  i36;on.ff^- 
lend's  date,  138-140;  on  the  Para- 
doxe  sur  le  comedien,  158-166, 
220  n. 

Duras,  Mme  de,  124 

Du  Resnel,  249  n. 

Edition,  preparation  of  an,  37-69 

Encyclopaedias,  33 

Encyclopedic,  238,  273 

Enjambements,  207 

Entretien  de  Pascal  avec  M.  de  Sad, 

text,  41-42 
Erasmus,  91 
Esteve,  E.,  12  n.,  45  n.;  on  Helena's 

date,  139-142 ;  on  Byron  in  France. 

247  n.,  257  n. 

Faguet,  E.,  on  the  Paradoxe  sur  le 
comtdien,  160  «.,  162-166 ;  on  Rous- 
seau, 220  «.;  on  Chenier,  222 

Falconet,  227  n. 

Faxon,  F.  W.,  32 

Fenelon,  bibliography,  28 n.;  edition 
of  Telemaque,  68;  influence,  245, 
246, 251, 254,  258,  260,  267,  270,  271 

Ferriere,  A.,  226w. 

Feydeau,  E.,  69  n. 

Flaubert,  sources,  10471.,  127;  com- 
position of  Salammbo,  i56n.;  biog- 
raphy, 218 

Florio,  260 


Fock,  G.,  26 

Fontenelle,  influence,  241,  271 
Fortescue,  G.  K.,  27 
Foulet,  68 
Fragonard,  270 
France,  A.,  12  «.,  303 
French  language,  bibliography,  29 
Fromentin,  69  n. ;  critical  bibliography, 
78 n.;  sources,  124;  influence,  239 
Fuchs,  A.,  231,  255  n. 
Funck-Brentano,  F.,  71  n.,  76  n. 
Fustel  de  Coulanges,  133 

Gallas,  K.  R.,  16  n. 

Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  in 

Gassendi,  277,  278 

Gautier,  Th.,  69 n.;  sources,  126,  127 

Gayley,  C.  M.,  12  n.,  19  n. 

Georgi,  T.,  21 

Gerdil,  270 

Gerig,  J.  L.,  25 

Germany,  national  bibliography,  23 

Gilbert,  N.,  214 

Girard,  A.,  135  n. 

Girardin,  F.  de,  254  n. 

Giraud,  J.,  on  Vigny,  123;  on  Flau- 
bert, 127 

Giraud,  V.,  n  n.,  12  n.;  Bibliographic 
of  Taine,  74  n.,  77 ;  on  biography, 
224,  245  n.,  250  «.,  296 

Girodet,  125 

Glachant,  51  n.,  59  n. 

Glatigny,  69  n. 

Gobineau,  233 

Goethe,  81,  233,  247 

Gohin,  F.,  editor  of  Heroet,  66,  171; 
on  Stendhal,  101  n. 

Goncourt,  E.  and  J.  de,  268 

Goncourt,  J.  de,  69  n. 

Gongora,  242 

Gosse,  Ed.,  239,  240 

Gossez,  M.  A.  N.,  127  n. 

Gournay,  M1^  de,  150 

Grammont,  M.,  196,  197,  201,  204  n., 
207  n. 


INDEX 


309 


Grande  Encyclopedic,  33 

Grappe,  G.,  160  n.,  162 

Great  Britain,  national  bibliography, 

23 

Gringore,  P.,  213 
Guicciardini,  153 
Guiffrey,  171 
Guizot,  69  n.,  101  M. 
Guy,  H.,  171,  256 n.;  on  Gringore, 

213-214 

Haase,  A.,  30 

Hamilton,  A.,  104  n. 

Hardy,  Alex.,  88 

Hartsoecker,  109 

Hatzfeld,  A.,  30 

Hauvette,  A.,  45 

Havet,  L.,  43 

Hazard,     P.,     29,    226 «.,    248  n., 

253  «• 

Heine,  H.,  234 

Hennequin,  E.,  12  n.,  255  n. 

Henriot,  P.,  101  n. 

Herder,  247  n. 

Heredia,  J.  M.  de,  51,  6o«.,  205 

Heroet,  66,  171 

Herrera,  112 

Herrig,  L.,  33 

Herriot,  E.,  19  n. 

Hinrichs,  23 

Hoffmann,  W.,  233,  234 

Horluc,  30 

Hugo,  V.,  text  corrected,  43  n. ;  edition 
of  La  Legende  des  siecles  by  Berret, 
68;  sources  of  Les  Trois  Cents,  95, 
of  Les  Pauvres  Gens,  97-98,  of 
William  Shakespeare,  101,  of  La 
Legende  des  siecles,  103-104,  of 
Notre-Dame  de  Paris,  104  n.,  of 
Ruy  Bias,  120-121;  chronology 
oi  Contemplations,  145-148, 156  n.; 
versification,  200  n.,  201,  207;  biog- 
raphy, 212;  influence,  241,  253, 
256,  258  «.,  259 

Huguet,  E.,  30,  104  n. 


Ideas,  literary  history  in  connection 

with  history  of,  263-288 
Influence,  questions  of  success  and, 

225-262 
Italy,  national  bibliography,  23 

Jal,  34 

Jamyn,  A.,  172 
Janin,  J.,  69  ». 
Jannet,  P.,  171 
Jasinski,  200  n. 
Jellinek,  A.  L.,  29,  32 
Johnson,  Dr.,  212 
Joinville,  95 
Jordell,  D.,  31 
Journal  de  la  librairie,  22 
Jubinal,  98,  122 
Jusserand,  J.  J.,  249  n. 
Justus  Lipsius,  91 

Kahn,  G.,  201 
Kant,  248,  253 
Kastner,  43  n.,  198 
Kauffmann,  A.,  121 
Kaulek,  J.,  40  n. 
Kayser,  C.  G.,  23 
Klopstock,  123 
Klussmann,  R.,  26 
Kont,  257  M. 
Krantz,  261  n. 
Kroeger,  A.  B.,  16 
Kurtz,  B.  P.,  12  n.,  19  n. 

La  Boetie,  authenticity  of  the  Con- 

tr'un,  176-189 

La  Bruyere,  66,  244,  265-274 
Lachevre,  F.,  70,  251  n. 
La  Fayette,   Mme   de,   specimen   of 

spelling,  58  n. ;  sources  of  La  Prin- 

cesse  de  Cleves,  104 «.;  influence, 

252 

Lafenestre,  G.,  125  n. 
Laffay,  214 
Lafont,  C.,  97  «.,  98 
La  Fontaine,  125,  212,  258  «. 


PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 


Lamartine,  200;  corrections  of  text, 
45 ;  edition,  53 ;  versification, 2oon. ; 
biography,  212;  success  and  influ- 
ence, 233,  236,  243,  244,  253,  257, 
189  n. 

Lamennais,  88,  259 

Lancaster,  H.  C.,  121  n.,  138  n. 

Landry,  E.,  194,  201 

Langlois,  C.  V.,  Manuel  de  biblio- 
graphic historique,  13-14,  216 

Langlois  and  Seignobos,  Introduction 
aux  Etudes  historiques,4Tn.,  i57«-> 
189  n. 

Lanson,  G.,  teaching  of,  at  the  Sor- 
bonne,  Introduction,  iii-iv;  on 
methods  in  literary  history,  2,  3  n.; 
Histoire  de  la  litterature  jranqaise, 
ii  n.;  Manuel  bibliographique,  16- 
19;  on  text  of  Lettres  philoso- 
phiques,  45;  editor  of  Lettres 
philosophiques,  47,  54;  on  Calvin, 
52  n. ;  editor  of  the  Meditations, 
53 ;  on  editing,  64,  67  n. ;  on  Lamen- 
nais, 88;  on  Voltaire's  sources, 
102  n.,  io6n.;  on  methods  of  in- 
vestigation of  sources,  114-115, 
130;  on  sources  of  Ruy  Bias,  120- 
121 ;  on  sources  of  Fantasia,  122; 
chronological  tables  in  Manuel, 
134  n. ;  on  chronology  of  the  Miditc- 
tions, 14511.;  on  Diderot's  Paradoxe, 
160;  on  authenticity  of  Pascal's 
Factums,  173-175;  on  attribution 
of  the  Discours  sur  les  passions  de 
I 'amour,  i75n.;  on  French  versi- 
fication, 198 «.;  on  biography, 
21  in.;  on  Voltaire's  biography, 
220 n.;  on  problems  of  influence, 
226  n.,  228,  247  n.,  248  n.,  249, 
251  n.,  252  n.,  253  n.,  257  n.,  258, 
263  n. ;  on  Voltaire's  influence,  241 ; 
on  Gongorism,  242;  on  Descartes's 
influence,  261  n.;  on  social  influ- 
ence of  literature,  271,  272,  273; 
on  French  tragedy,  296 


La  Rochefoucauld,  274,  275 

Larroumet,  G.,  i6on.,  161 

Lasteyrie,  R.  de,  216  n. 

Laumonier,  P.,  editor  of  Ronsard,  53, 
68;  on  chronology  of  Ronsard's 
lyrics,  145, 156  n.;  on  attribution  of 
some  lyrics  to  Ronsard,  171,  172  n. 

Lautrey  L.,  editor  of  Montaigne's 
Voyage,  44 

Lauvriere,  218 

La  Vicomterie,  126 

Lavisse,  E.,  14  n. 

Le  Brun,  125 

Leconte  de  Lisle,  104  n.,  127 

Lee,  S.,  211  n. 

Lefevre-Pontalis,  2i6n. 

Lefranc,  A.,  editor  of  Rabelais,  52, 
169 n.;  editor  of  Calvin,  52 

Le  Goffic,  Ch.,  196 

Leibnitz,  105 

Le  Maitre,  73 

Lemaitre,  J.,  240 

Lenclos,  N.  de,  277,  284 

Lenglet-Dufresnoy,  243 

Le  Sage,  A.,  bibliography,  28  n.,  78  n., 
269 

Le  Sage  de  la  Colombiere,  281 

Le  Soudier,  H.,  22 

Lessing,  233,  258  n. 

Letourneur,  249  n. 

Levi-Malvano,  258  n. 

Libraries,  large  catalogues  of,  26-28 

Library  of  Congress,  28 

Littre,  30 

Logau,  F.,  233 

Lorenz,  21 

Lote,  G.,  194,  201 

Loth,  254n. 

Louys,  189  n. 

Low,  S.,  23 

Lyonnet,  H.,  189  n, 

Macaulay,  123 
Machiavelli,  258  n. 
McKerrow,  R.  B.,  51,  72 


INDEX 


Madan,  F.,  73  n. 

Maeterlinck,  M.,  233 

Maigron,  L.,  241 

Maire,  A.,  26,  78  n. 

Mairet,  J.,  138  n. 

Maist-re,  J.  de,  248 

Malherbe,  207,  231 

Mandeville,  B.  de,  277 

Mantegna,  126 

Manuscripts,  reading  of,  39  n. 

Manzoni,  233 

Marchangy,  123 

Marechal,  C.,  88 

Marinet,  30 

Marot,  Clement,  171,  256 

Marot,  Jean,  171 

Marsan,  J.,  251  n. 

Martinenche,  E.,  259 

Martino,  P.,  45  n.,  78  n. 

Martinon,  P.,  43  n.,  189  n.,  200 n.;  on 
strophes,  208-209 

Marty-Laveaux,  editor:  of  Ronsard, 
53,  171;  of  Corneille,  136;  of  Ra- 
belais, 169  n. 

Massillon,  268 

Masson,  P.  M.,  editor  of  the  Pro- 
fession de  foi,  47,  57-58,  67;  on 
Vigny,  123,  139  «.,  142,  156  n.;  on 
Mme  de  Tencin's  biography,  221; 
on  literary  influences,  237;  on 
Rousseau's  influence,  248,  257  n. 

Mathews,  W.,  211 

Melon,  J.  B.,  279,  281 

Merimee,  69  n.,  101  n. 

Mesnard,  66 

Meusnier  de  Querlon,  43 

Michaud,  34 

Michaut,  G.,  66,  78  n.,  220  n. 

Michelet,  69  n.,  298 

Mirbeau,  O.,  233 

Mistral,  233 

Moliere,  bibliography,  28;  edition, 
66;  Moliere  and  Corneille,  189 n.; 
biography,  213;  influence,  254,  258 

Monglond,  A.,  16  n. 


Monnier,  H.,  69  n. 

Montaigne,  editions,  40  n.,  43,  67; 
sources,  90-92,  95,  96,  99,  101 ; 
quoted,  130;  chronology  of  the 
Essais,  149-156 ;  Montaigne  and  the 
Contr'un,  176-189;  influence,  237; 
Montaigne  and  Shakespeare,  260 

Montalembert,  69  n. 

Montchrestien,  A.  de,  199 

Montesquieu,  89,  258  w.;  influence, 
272,  279 

Montluc,  B.  de,  220  «. 

Moore,  Th.,  123 

Moratori,  in 

Morel,  J.,  102,  115,  116 

Moreri,  103 

Morley,  J.,  246 

Mornet,  D.,  on  methods,  12  n.,  264, 
265,  282-283 ;  works  or  articles 
mentioned,  16  n.,  231  n.,  243  n., 
253  «.,  255  n.,  263  «.;  on  versifica- 
tion, 60  n.,  200  n. ;  on  biography, 
210  n.,  222;  on  Rousseau's  influ- 
ence, 236  n.,  252 

Morris,  G.  D.,  255  n. 

Musset,  A.  de,  212 ;  quoted,  87 

Naigeon,  158-166 
Nebout,  P.,  200  n. 
Newton,  102,  no 
New  York,  libraries,  28 
Nichol,  J.,  134 
Nicole,  267,  275 
Nietzsche,  240 
Notes,  how  to  take,  292-294 

Ohnet,  G.,  240 
Omont,  H.,  2 in. 

Orthography,  reproduction  of  origi- 
nal, of  a  text,  58-59 
Ossian,  247  «.,  257 
Oulmont,  C.,  213,  214  n. 

Pagliaini,  A.,  23 
Pailhes,  G.,  i24n. 


312 


PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 


Pailleron,  211 

Pascal,  manuscript  of  Pensees,  39  n. ; 
text  of  Pensees,  50;  editions,  66- 
67 ;  bibliography,  78  n. ;  attribu- 
tion of  the  Factums,  172-175; 
influence,  237,  245;  quoted,  298, 

303 

Pauthier,  H.  J.,  12  n. 
Peabody  Institute,  28 
Peddie,  R.  A.,  20,  21  n. 
Pemberton,  102 
Periodical  literature,  30-33 
Periodicals,    of   interest   for   French 

literary  history,  33 
Petit  de  Julleville,  L.,  19  n.,  30 
Petzholdt,  J.,  14 
Pichot,  142 
Picot,  E.,  21  n. 
Pirot,  175 
Plan,  P.  P.,  iSgn. 
Plantet,  E.,  40  n. 
Plattard,  J.,  68,  85 
Pluche,  Abb6,  no,  243 
Poe,  E.  A.,  234,  255  n. 
Poizat,  A.,  189  n. 
Pons,  A.  A.,  254  n. 
Poole's  Index,  31 
Pope,  212,  246  n.,  249  n. 
Port-Royal,  132 
Potez,  H.,  122,  214  n. 
Pouqueville,  141 
Poussin,  125 
Prevost,  Abbe,  244 
Prevost-Paradol,  69  n. 
Prou,  M.,  39  n. 
Provinquieres,  270 
Prudhomme,  Sully,  201 
Pseudonymous  books,  24 
Punctuation  in  an  edition,  60 

Querard,  J.  M.,  21,  24 
Quinet,  E.,  69  n. 
Quintil  Horatian,  189  n. 

Rabbe,  A.,  121 


Rabelais,  text,  52;  editions,  68;  au- 
thenticity of  Book  V,  i6Q».;  in- 
fluence, 256 

Racine,  bibliography,  28 n.;  sources, 
88;  library,  i28n.;  influence,  25771., 
2S9 

Rageot,  G.,  226n. 

Ramin,  H.,  73  n. 

Ramsay,  246 

Ratisbonne,  L.,  144 

Reader's  Guide,  The,  31 

Readings,  various,  how  to  collate, 
40  n. 

Rebelliau,  A.,  46  n. 

Regnard,  28  n.,  269 

Regnier,  H.  de,  231 

Renan,  133,  225,  244,  258 

Renard,  G.,  12  n.,  226  n. 

Research  work,  291-294 

Rhyme,  206 

Rhythm  of  French  verse,  200-204 

Richter,  J.  P.,  123,  125 

Rieux,  A.  de,  95 

Rigal,  E.,  on  Polyeucte,  136;  on  the 
Contemplations,  156  n. 

Rigault,  H.,  242  n. 

Robertson,  J.  M.,  260 

Rochette,  A.,  200  n.,  201 

Roland,  Mme,  243 

Roney,  I.,  144 

Ronsard,  text,  53 ;  editions,  87 ;  pieces 
attributed  to,  171;  influence,  231, 
251,  256 

Rostand,  199 

Rotrou,  138  ». 

Rousseau,  J.  B.,  241 

Rousseau,  J.  J.,  edition  of  the  Pro- 
fession de  Foi,  47,  57-58,  67;  spell- 
ing in  works  of,  59;  punctuation 
in  works  of,  60 n.;  Les  Confes- 
sions, 64 ;  La  Nouvelle  Helo'ise,  86 ; 
sources,  115-116;  influence,  235, 
236,  237,  239,  248,  251,  254,  258, 
259,  261 ;  first  Discours,  273,  281 

Rudel,  G.,  254 


INDEX 


313 


Rudler,  G.,  220  ».;  editor  of  Adolphe, 
68;  bibliography  of  B.  Constant, 
78;  on  La  Princesse  de  Cleves, 
104  n. 

Sainte-Beuve,  quoted,  nw.,  74 n.; 
bibliography,  78  n.;  on  Vigny's 
Helena,  138;  on  biography,  210 n., 
214,  217,  218,  219,  220;  on  influ- 
ence, 231,  246 

Saint-Evremond,  238,  277,  278,  284 

Saint-Hyacinte,  Th.  de,  243 

Saint-Simon,  64 

Sand,  G.,  69  n.,  254 

Scherer,  233 

Schopenhauer,  227,  238  n. 

Senancour,  66,  259 

Seneca,  92-93 

Serrurier,  C.,  12  n. 

Servois,  66,  251  n. 

Shakespeare,  in  France,  249;  Shake- 
speare and  Montaigne,  260 

Shelley,  141 

Silvestre  de  Sacy,  95 

Sources,  investigation  and  interpreta- 
tion, 82-131 

Souriau,  M.,  200  n. 

Souza,  201 

Speroni,  Sp.,  119 

Spinoza,  influence,  247,  248 

Stael,  Mme  de,  source  of  Vigny's  Le 
Mont  des  Oliviers,  123;  influence, 
239,  240,  259,  263  n. 

Stapfer,  P.,  226  n.,  233  n.,  244  n. 

Stedefeld,  260 

Stein,  H.,  15 

Stein,  L.,  211  n. 

Stendhal,  101  n.,  214 

Stevenson,  F.  S.,  211  «. 

Stiefel,  A.  L.,  138  n. 

Strowski,  F.,  67,  176  n. 

Stryienski,  C.,  101  n. 

Success  and  influence,  questions  of, 
225-262 

Swift,  256 


Taine,  quoted,   nn.,  300;   Giraud's 

Taine,   bibliographic   critique,   77 ; 

on  biography,  266 
Tarde,  G.,  226  «.,  286 
Temple,  W.,  242 
Tencin,  Mme  de,  221 
Text,  how  to  establish  a  correct,  39-42 
Texte,  J.,  240 

Thayer,  W.  R.,  211  «.,  220  n. 
Themiseul  de  Saint-Hyacinte,  243 
Thesis,  preparation  and  redaction  of 

a, 289-299 
Thieme,  H.  P.,  Guide  bibliographique, 

22 ;  on  versification,  195 
Thiers,  69  n. 
Thieulin,  196 
Thiry,  134 
Thomas,  A.,  30 
Thomas,  W.,  239  n. 
Thurot,  J.,  44 
Tilley,  A.,  169  n. 
Tillier,  Cl.,  233 
Tobler,  198 
Toldo,  P.,  256  n. 
Toulouse,  Dr.,  218 
Tourneux,  M.,  i6on.,  161, 163 
Tournoux,  G.  A.,  78 
Tronchon,  247  n. 
Trublet,  Abbe,  299 
Turgenev,  256 

United  States,  national  bibliography, 

24 
Urbain,  C.,  12  n.,  76 

Vaganay,  H.,  Sow. 
Vairasse,  D.,  106 
Vallee,  L.,  15  n. 
Vandeul,  Mme  de,  162,  163 
Van  Tieghem,  P.,  247  n.,  254  n.,  257  n. 
Vauban, 270 

Verlaine,  bibliography,   78;   date   of 
Art  poetique,  136;  versification,  201 
Verlaque,  77  M. 
Verrier,  P.,  194 


PROBLEMS  AND  METHODS 


Versification,  methods  in  questions  of, 
194-209 

Vianey,  104 

Vicaire,  G.,  22 

Vigny,  A.  de,  corrections  of  text 
of  L' Esprit  pur,  44;  corrections  of 
text  of  the  Journal  d'un  poete,  45 ; 
sources,  123,  125;  date  of  Hlttna, 
138-143;  chronology  of  the  Jour- 
nal, 143-144;  biography,  214  n., 
218,  220 n.;  influence,  230,  251,  257 

Villey,  P.,  on  Montaigne's  sources, 
90  n.,  91  «.,  92  «.,  94  n.,  95  n.,  97  n., 
101  n.;  on  Du  Bellay's  sources,  n  8- 
119;  on  chronology  of  the  Essais, 
149-156;  on  Marot,  171  n.;  on  the 
Contr'un,  i76n.,  186-189 ;  on  Mon- 
taigne and  Shakespeare,  260 

Villon,  254 

Vollmoller,  L.,  25 

Voltaire,  text  of  Lettres  phUoso- 
phiques,  45,  54;  text  of  Candide, 
47i  52,  55  5  spelling,  59;  corre- 


spondence, 68,  85;  sources  of  the 
Essai  sur  les  mceurs,  93 ;  sources  of 
Candide, 94, 104-106,  109-112, 116- 
117;  sources  of  Lettre  philosophique 
XIII,  106-107;  biography,  220  n.; 
influence,  236,  241,  244,  251,  254, 
256,  258,  261 ;  Voltaire  and  Shake- 
speare, 246;  ideas  of,  on  luxury, 
267,  273,  279,  281,  284 

Waddington,  Q.,  21  n. 
Wailly,  L.  de,  121 
Waterhouse,  G.,  25 
Watteau,  270 
Whibley,  257  n. 
Whitney,  J.  L.,  28 
Wolf,  Ch.,  105 
Wright,  C.  H.  C.,  19  n. 

Young,  Ed.,  239 

Zangroniz,  De,  96  n.,  gg  n. 
Zola.,  £.,  218 


A     000  686  901     0 


